mean that we regard these other developments as unim-

portant. For practical reasons we have to confine our dis-

cussion to areas that have received insufficient public at-

tention or in which we have something new to say. For

example, since there are well-developed environmental

Industrial Society and Its Future

and wilderness movements, we have written very little

Theodore Kaczynski

about environmental degradation or the destruction of

wild nature, even though we consider these to be highly

1995

important.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MODERN LEFTISM

INTRODUCTION

6. Almost everyone will agree that we live in a deeply

1. The Industrial Revolution and its consequences have

troubled society. One of the most widespread manifesta-

been a disaster for the human race. They have greatly

tions of the craziness of our world is leftism, so a discus-

increased the life-expectancy of those of us who live in

sion of the psychology of leftism can serve as an introduc-

“advanced” countries, but they have destabilized society,

tion to the discussion of the problems of modern society

have made life unfulfilling, have subjected human beings

in general.

to indignities, have led to widespread psychological suffe-

7. But what is leftism? During the first half of the 20th

ring (in the Third World to physical suffering as well) and

century leftism could have been practically identified with

have inflicted severe damage on the natural world. The

socialism. Today the movement is fragmented and it is not

continued development of technology will worsen the si-

clear who can properly be called a leftist. When we speak

tuation. It will certainly subject human being to greater in-

of leftists in this article we have in mind mainly socialists,

dignities and inflict greater damage on the natural world,

collectivists, “politically correct” types, feminists, gay and

it will probably lead to greater social disruption and psy-

disability activists, animal rights activists and the like. But

chological suffering, and it may lead to increased physical

not everyone who is associated with one of these move-

suffering even in “advanced” countries.

ments is a leftist. What we are trying to get at in discus-

2. The industrial-technological system may survive or it

sing leftism is not so much movement or an ideology as a

may break down. If it survives, it MAY eventually achieve

psychological type, or rather a collection of related types.

a low level of physical and psychological suffering, but

Thus, what we mean by “leftism” will emerge more clearly

only after passing through a long and very painful period

in the course of our discussion of leftist psychology. (Also,

of adjustment and only at the cost of permanently redu-

see paragraphs 227-230.)

cing human beings and many other living organisms to

8. Even so, our conception of leftism will remain a good

engineered products and mere cogs in the social machine.

deal less clear than we would wish, but there doesn’t seem

Furthermore, if the system survives, the consequences will

to be any remedy for this. All we are trying to do here is

be inevitable: There is no way of reforming or modifying

indicate in a rough and approximate way the two psycho-

the system so as to prevent it from depriving people of

logical tendencies that we believe are the main driving

dignity and autonomy.

force of modern leftism. We by no means claim to be tel-

3. If the system breaks down the consequences will still

ling the WHOLE truth about leftist psychology. Also, our

be very painful. But the bigger the system grows the more

discussion is meant to apply to modern leftism only. We

disastrous the results of its breakdown will be, so if it is

leave open the question of the extent to which our discus-

to break down it had best break down sooner rather than

sion could be applied to the leftists of the 19th and early

later.

20th centuries.

4. We therefore advocate a revolution against the in-

9. The two psychological tendencies that underlie mo-

dustrial system. This revolution may or may not make use

dern leftism we call “feelings of inferiority” and “over-

of violence; it may be sudden or it may be a relatively

socialization”. Feelings of inferiority are characteristic of

gradual process spanning a few decades. We can’t predict

modern leftism as a whole, while oversocialization is cha-

any of that. But we do outline in a very general way the

racteristic only of a certain segment of modern leftism;

measures that those who hate the industrial system should

but this segment is highly influential.

take in order to prepare the way for a revolution against

that form of society. This is not to be a POLITICAL revo-

lution. Its object will be to overthrow not governments

FEELINGS OF INFERIORITY

but the economic and technological basis of the present

society.

5. In this article we give attention to only some of

10. By “feelings of inferiority” we mean not only infe-

the negative developments that have grown out of the

riority feelings in the strict sense but a whole spectrum

industrial-technological system. Other such developments

of related traits; low self-esteem, feelings of powerless-

we mention only briefly or ignore altogether. This does not

ness, depressive tendencies, defeatism, guilt, self-hatred,

etc. We argue that modern leftists tend to have some such

in primitive cultures, the leftist finds excuses for them,

feelings (possibly more or less repressed) and that these

or at best he GRUDGINGLY admits that they exist; whe-

feelings are decisive in determining the direction of mo-

reas he ENTHUSIASTICALLY points out (and often greatly

dern leftism.

exaggerates) these faults where they appear in Western

11. When someone interprets as derogatory almost any-

civilization. Thus it is clear that these faults are not the

thing that is said about him (or about groups with whom

leftist’s real motive for hating America and the West. He

he identifies) we conclude that he has inferiority feelings

hates America and the West because they are strong and

or low self-esteem. This tendency is pronounced among

successful.

minority rights activists, whether or not they belong to the

16. Words like “self-confidence”, “self-reliance”,

“ini-

minority groups whose rights they defend. They are hy-

tiative”,

“enterprise”,

“optimism”, etc., play little role

persensitive about the words used to designate minorities

in the liberal and leftist vocabulary. The leftist is anti-

and about anything that is said concerning minorities. The

individualistic, pro-collectivist. He wants society to solve

terms “negro”, “oriental”, “handicapped” or “chick” for an

every one’s problems for them, satisfy everyone’s needs

African, an Asian, a disabled person or a woman origi-

for them, take care of them. He is not the sort of person

nally had no derogatory connotation. “Broad” and “chick”

who has an inner sense of confidence in his ability to solve

were merely the feminine equivalents of “guy”, “dude” or

his own problems and satisfy his own needs. The leftist is

“fellow”. The negative connotations have been attached

antagohistic to the concept of competition because, deep

to these terms by the activists themselves. Some animal

inside, he feels like a loser.

rights activists have gone so far as to reject the word

17. Art forms that appeal to modern leftish intellec-

“pet” and insist on its replacement by “animal compa-

tuals tend to focus on sordidness, defeat and despair, or

nion”. Leftish anthropologists go to great lengths to avoid

else they take an orgiastic tone, throwing off rational

saying anything about primitive peoples that could concei-

control as if there were no hope of accomplishing any-

vably be interpreted as negative. They want to replace the

thing through rational calculation and all that was left was

word “primitive” by “nonliterate”. They seem almost para-

to immerse oneself in the sensations of the moment.

noid about anything that might suggest that any primitive

18. Modern leftish philosophers tend to dismiss reason,

culture is inferior to our own. (We do not mean to imply

science, objective reality and to insist that everything is

that primitive cultures ARE inferior to ours. We merely

culturally relative. It is true that one can ask serious ques-

point out the hyper sensitivity of leftish anthropologists.)

tions about the foundations of scientific knowledge and

12. Those who are most sensitive about “politically in-

about how, if at all, the concept of objective reality can

correct” terminology are not the average black ghetto-

be defined. But it is obvious that modern leftish philoso-

dweller, Asian immigrant, abused woman or disabled per-

phers are not simply cool-headed logicians systematically

son, but a minority of activists, many of whom do not

analyzing the foundations of knowledge. They are deeply

even belong to any “oppressed” group but come from

involved emotionally in their attack on truth and reality.

privileged strata of society. Political correctness has its

They attack these concepts because of their own psycho-

stronghold among university professors, who have secure

logical needs. For one thing, their attack is an outlet for

employment with comfortable salaries, and the majority

hostility, and, to the extent that it is successful, it satis-

of whom are heterosexual white males from middle- to

fies the drive for power. More importantly, the leftist hates

upper-middle-class families.

science and rationality because they classify certain beliefs

13. Many leftists have an intense identification with the

as true (i.e., successful, superior) and other beliefs as false

problems of groups that have an image of being weak

(i.e., failed, inferior). The leftist’s feelings of inferiority

(women), defeated (American Indians), repellent (homo-

run so deep that he cannot tolerate any classification of

sexuals) or otherwise inferior. The leftists themselves feel

some things as successful or superior and other things as

that these groups are inferior. They would never admit to

failed or inferior. This also underlies the rejection by many

themselves that they have such feelings, but it is preci-

leftists of the concept of mental illness and of the utility of

sely because they do see these groups as inferior that they

IQ tests. Leftists are antagonistic to genetic explanations

identify with their problems. (We do not mean to suggest

of human abilities or behavior because such explanations

that women, Indians, etc. ARE inferior; we are only ma-

tend to make some persons appear superior or inferior to

king a point about leftist psychology.)

others. Leftists prefer to give society the credit or blame

14. Feminists are desperately anxious to prove that wo-

for an individual’s ability or lack of it. Thus if a person is

men are as strong and as capable as men. Clearly they are

“inferior” it is not his fault, but society’s, because he has

nagged by a fear that women may NOT be as strong and

not been brought up properly.

as capable as men.

19. The leftist is not typically the kind of person whose

15. Leftists tend to hate anything that has an image

feelings of inferiority make him a braggart, an egotist, a

of being strong, good and successful. They hate America,

bully, a self-promoter, a ruthless competitor. This kind of

they hate Western civilization, they hate white males, they

person has not wholly lost faith in himself. He has a de-

hate rationality. The reasons that leftists give for hating

ficit in his sense of power and self-worth, but he can still

the West, etc. clearly do not correspond with their real

conceive of himself as having the capacity to be strong,

motives. They SAY they hate the West because it is war-

and his efforts to make himself strong produce his un-

like, imperialistic, sexist, ethnocentric and so forth, but

pleasant behavior. [1] But the leftist is too far gone for

where these same faults appear in socialist countries or

that. His feelings of inferiority are so ingrained that he

cannot conceive of himself as individually strong and va-

to avoid feelings of guilt, they continually have to deceive

luable. Hence the collectivism of the leftist. He can feel

themselves about their own motives and find moral ex-

strong only as a member of a large organization or a mass

planations for feelings and actions that in reality have a

movement with which he identifies himself.

nonmoral origin. We use the term “oversocialized” to des-

20. Notice the masochistic tendency of leftist tactics.

cribe such people. [2]

Leftists protest by lying down in front of vehicles, they

26. Oversocialization can lead to low self-esteem, a

intentionally provoke police or racists to abuse them, etc.

sense of powerlessness, defeatism, guilt, etc. One of the

These tactics may often be effective, but many leftists use

most important means by which our society socializes

them not as a means to an end but because they PREFER

children is by making them feel ashamed of behavior or

masochistic tactics. Self-hatred is a leftist trait.

speech that is contrary to society’s expectations. If this is

21. Leftists may claim that their activism is motivated

overdone, or if a particular child is especially susceptible

by compassion or by moral principles, and moral principle

to such feelings, he ends by feeling ashamed of HIMSELF.

does play a role for the leftist of the oversocialized type.

Moreover the thought and the behavior of the oversocia-

But compassion and moral principle cannot be the main

lized person are more restricted by society’s expectations

motives for leftist activism. Hostility is too prominent a

than are those of the lightly socialized person. The majo-

component of leftist behavior; so is the drive for power.

rity of people engage in a significant amount of naughty

Moreover, much leftist behavior is not rationally calcula-

behavior. They lie, they commit petty thefts, they break

ted to be of benefit to the people whom the leftists claim

traffic laws, they goof off at work, they hate someone, they

to be trying to help. For example, if one believes that af-

say spiteful things or they use some underhanded trick to

firmative action is good for black people, does it make

get ahead of the other guy. The oversocialized person can-

sense to demand affirmative action in hostile or dogmatic

not do these things, or if he does do them he generates

terms? Obviously it would be more productive to take a

in himself a sense of shame and self-hatred. The over-

diplomatic and conciliatory approach that would make at

socialized person cannot even experience, without guilt,

least verbal and symbolic concessions to white people who

thoughts or feelings that are contrary to the accepted mo-

think that affirmative action discriminates against them.

rality; he cannot think “unclean” thoughts. And socializa-

But leftist activists do not take such an approach because

tion is not just a matter of morality; we are socialized to

it would not satisfy their emotional needs. Helping black

conform to many norms of behavior that do not fall under

people is not their real goal. Instead, race problems serve

the heading of morality. Thus the oversocialized person is

as an excuse for them to express their own hostility and

kept on a psychological leash and spends his life running

frustrated need for power. In doing so they actually harm

on rails that society has laid down for him. In many over-

black people, because the activists’ hostile attitude toward

socialized people this results in a sense of constraint and

the white majority tends to intensify race hatred.

powerlessness that can be a severe hardship. We suggest

22. If our society had no social problems at all, the lef-

that oversocialization is among the more serious cruelties

tists would have to INVENT problems in order to provide

that human being inflict on one another.

themselves with an excuse for making a fuss.

27. We argue that a very important and influential seg-

23. We emphasize that the foregoing does not pretend

ment of the modern left is oversocialized and that their

to be an accurate description of everyone who might be

oversocialization is of great importance in determining

considered a leftist. It is only a rough indication of a ge-

the direction of modern leftism. Leftists of the overso-

neral tendency of leftism.

cialized type tend to be intellectuals or members of the

upper-middle class. Notice that university intellectuals [3]

constitute the most highly socialized segment of our so-

ciety and also the most leftwing segment.

OVERSOCIALIZATION

28. The leftist of the oversocialized type tries to get off

his psychological leash and assert his autonomy by rebel-

24. Psychologists use the term “socialization” to desi-

ling. But usually he is not strong enough to rebel against

gnate the process by which children are trained to think

the most basic values of society. Generally speaking, the

and act as society demands. A person is said to be well

goals of today’s leftists are NOT in conflict with the accep-

socialized if he believes in and obeys the moral code of

ted morality. On the contrary, the left takes an accepted

his society and fits in well as a functioning part of that

moral principle, adopts it as its own, and then accuses

society. It may seem senseless to say that many leftists are

mainstream society of violating that principle. Examples:

over-socialized, since the leftist is perceived as a rebel. Ne-

racial equality, equality of the sexes, helping poor people,

vertheless, the position can be defended. Many leftists are

peace as opposed to war, nonviolence generally, freedom

not such rebels as they seem.

of expression, kindness to animals. More fundamentally,

25. The moral code of our society is so demanding that

the duty of the individual to serve society and the duty

no one can think, feel and act in a completely moral way.

of society to take care of the individual. All these have

For example, we are not supposed to hate anyone, yet

been deeply rooted values of our society (or at least of its

almost everyone hates somebody at some time or other,

middle and upper classes [4] for a long time. These va-

whether he admits it to himself or not. Some people are

lues are explicitly or implicitly expressed or presupposed

so highly socialized that the attempt to think, feel and

in most of the material presented to us by the mainstream

act morally imposes a severe burden on them. In order

communications media and the educational system. Lef-

tists, especially those of the oversocialized type, usually

blems of our society as a whole. Low self-esteem, depres-

do not rebel against these principles but justify their hos-

sive tendencies and defeatism are not restricted to the left.

tility to society by claiming (with some degree of truth)

Though they are especially noticeable in the left, they are

that society is not living up to these principles.

widespread in our society. And today’s society tries to so-

29. Here is an illustration of the way in which the over-

cialize us to a greater extent than any previous society. We

socialized leftist shows his real attachment to the conven-

are even told by experts how to eat, how to exercise, how

tional attitudes of our society while pretending to be in

to make love, how to raise our kids and so forth.

rebellion aginst it. Many leftists push for affirmative ac-

tion, for moving black people into high-prestige jobs, for

improved education in black schools and more money for

such schools; the way of life of the black “underclass” they

THE POWER PROCESS

regard as a social disgrace. They want to integrate the

black man into the system, make him a business execu-

33. Human beings have a need (probably based in bio-

tive, a lawyer, a scientist just like upper-middle-class white

logy) for something that we will call the power process.

people. The leftists will reply that the last thing they want

This is closely related to the need for power (which is

is to make the black man into a copy of the white man; ins-

widely recognized) but is not quite the same thing. The

tead, they want to preserve African American culture. But

power process has four elements. The three most clear-

in what does this preservation of African American culture

cut of these we call goal, effort and attainment of goal.

consist? It can hardly consist in anything more than ea-

(Everyone needs to have goals whose attainment requires

ting black-style food, listening to black-style music, wea-

effort, and needs to succeed in attaining at least some of

ring black-style clothing and going to a black-style church

his goals.) The fourth element is more difficult to define

or mosque. In other words, it can express itself only in su-

and may not be necessary for everyone. We call it auto-

perficial matters. In all ESSENTIAL respects most leftists

nomy and will discuss it later (paragraphs 42-44).

of the oversocialized type want to make the black man

34. Consider the hypothetical case of a man who can

conform to white, middle-class ideals. They want to make

have anything he wants just by wishing for it. Such a man

him study technical subjects, become an executive or a

has power, but he will develop serious psychological pro-

scientist, spend his life climbing the status ladder to prove

blems. At first he will have a lot of fun, but by and by he

that black people are as good as white. They want to make

will become acutely bored and demoralized. Eventually he

black fathers “responsible,” they want black gangs to be-

may become clinically depressed. History shows that leisu-

come nonviolent, etc. But these are exactly the values of

red aristocracies tend to become decadent. This is not true

the industrial- technological system. The system couldn’t

of fighting aristocracies that have to struggle to maintain

care less what kind of music a man listens to, what kind

their power. But leisured, secure aristocracies that have no

of clothes he wears or what religion he believes in as long

need to exert themselves usually become bored, hedonis-

as he studies in school, holds a respectable job, climbs the

tic and demoralized, even though they have power. This

status ladder, is a “responsible” parent, is nonviolent and

shows that power is not enough. One must have goals to-

so forth. In effect, however much he may deny it, the over-

ward which to exercise one’s power.

socialized leftist wants to integrate the black man into the

35. Everyone has goals; if nothing else, to obtain the

system and make him adopt its values.

physical necessities of life: food, water and whatever clo-

30. We certainly do not claim that leftists, even of the

thing and shelter are made necessary by the climate. But

oversocialized type, NEVER rebel against the fundamen-

the leisured aristocrat obtains these things without effort.

tal values of our society. Clearly they sometimes do. Some

Hence his boredom and demoralization.

oversocialized leftists have gone so far as to rebel against

36. Nonattainment of important goals results in death

one of modern society’s most important principles by en-

if the goals are physical necessities, and in frustration if

gaging in physical violence. By their own account, vio-

non-attainment of the goals is compatible with survival.

lence is for them a form of “liberation.” In other words,

Consistent failure to attain goals throughout life results in

by committing violence they break through the psycholo-

defeatism, low self-esteem or depression.

gical restraints that have been trained into them. Because

37. Thus, in order to avoid serious psychological pro-

they are oversocialized these restraints have been more

blems, a human being needs goals whose attainment re-

confining for them than for others; hence their need to

quires effort, and he must have a reasonable rate of suc-

break free of them. But they usually justify their rebellion

cess in attaining his goals.

in terms of mainstream values. If they engage in violence

they claim to be fighting against racism or the like.

31. We realize that many objections could be raised to

SURROGATE ACTIVITIES

the foregoing thumbnail sketch of leftist psychology. The

real situation is complex, and anything like a complete

description of it would take several volumes even if the

38. But not every leisured aristocrat becomes bored and

necessary data were available. We claim only to have in-

demoralized. For example, the emperor Hirohito, instead

dicated very roughly the two most important tendencies

of sinking into decadent hedonism, devoted himself to

in the psychology of modern leftism.

marine biology, a field in which he became distinguished.

32. The problems of the leftist are indicative of the pro-

When people do not have to exert themselves to satisfy

their physical needs they often set up artificial goals for

motivated in part by a drive for prestige, artistic creation

themselves. In many cases they then pursue these goals

by a need to express feelings, militant social activism by

with the same energy and emotional involvement that

hostility. But for most people who pursue them, these ac-

they otherwise would have put into the search for physi-

tivities are in large part surrogate activities. For example,

cal necessities. Thus the aristocrats of the Roman Empire

the majority of scientists will probably agree that the “ful-

had their literary pretensions; many European aristocrats

fillment” they get from their work is more important than

a few centuries ago invested tremendous time and energy

the money and prestige they earn.

in hunting, though they certainly didn’t need the meat;

41. For many if not most people, surrogate activities are

other aristocracies have competed for status through ela-

less satisfying than the pursuit of real goals (that is, goals

borate displays of wealth; and a few aristocrats, like Hiro-

that people would want to attain even if their need for the

hito, have turned to science.

power process were already fulfilled). One indication of

39. We use the term “surrogate activity” to designate

this is the fact that, in many or most cases, people who

an activity that is directed toward an artificial goal that

are deeply involved in surrogate activities are never sa-

people set up for themselves merely in order to have some

tisfied, never at rest. Thus the money-maker constantly

goal to work toward, or let us say, merely for the qake

strives for more and more wealth. The scientist no soo-

of the “fulfillment” that they get from pursuing the goal.

ner solves one problem than he moves on to the next. The

Here is a rule of thumb for the identification of surro-

long-distance runner drives himself to run always farther

gate activities. Given a person who devotes much time

and faster. Many people who pursue surrogate activities

and energy to the pursuit of goal X, ask yourself this: If

will say that they get far more fulfillment from these ac-

he had to devote most of his time and energy to satisfying

tivities than they do from the “mundane” business of sa-

his biological needs, and if that effort required him to use

tisfying their biological needs, but that is because in our

his physical and mental faculties in a varied and interes-

society the effort needed to satisfy the biological needs

ting way, would he feel seriously deprived because he did

has been reduced to triviality. More importantly, in our

not attain goal X? If the answer is no, then the person’s

society people do not satisfy their biological needs AUTO-

pursuit of goal X is a surrogate activity. Hirohito’s studies

NOMOUSLY but by functioning as parts of an immense

in marine biology clearly constituted a surrogate activity,

social machine. In contrast, people generally have a great

since it is pretty certain that if Hirohito had had to spend

deal of autonomy in pursuing their surrogate activities.

his time working at interesting non-scientific tasks in or-

der to obtain the necessities of life, he would not have

felt deprived because he didn’t know all about the ana-

tomy and life-cycles of marine animals. On the other hand

AUTONOMY

the pursuit of sex and love (for example) is not a surro-

gate activity, because most people, even if their existence

were otherwise satisfactory, would feel deprived if they

42. Autonomy as a part of the power process may not

passed their lives without ever having a relationship with

be necessary for every individual. But most people need

a member of the opposite sex. (But pursuit of an exces-

a greater or lesser degree of autonomy in working to-

sive amount of sex, more than one really needs, can be a

ward their goals. Their efforts must be undertaken on

surrogate activity.)

their own initiative and must be under their own direc-

40. In modern industrial society only minimal effort

tion and control. Yet most people do not have to exert this

is necessary to satisfy one’s physical needs. It is enough

initiative, direction and control as single individuals. It is

to go through a training program to acquire some petty

usually enough to act as a member of a SMALL group.

technical skill, then come to work on time and exert the

Thus if half a dozen people discuss a goal among them-

very modest effort needed to hold a job. The only requi-

selves and make a successful joint effort to attain that

rements are a moderate amount of intelligence and, most

goal, their need for the power process will be served. But

of all, simple OBEDIENCE. If one has those, society takes

if they work under rigid orders handed down from above

care of one from cradle to grave. (Yes, there is an under-

that leave them no room for autonomous decision and ini-

class that cannot take the physical necessities for granted,

tiative, then their need for the power process will not be

but we are speaking here of mainstream society.) Thus it

served. The same is true when decisions are made on a

is not surprising that modern society is full of surrogate

collective basis if the group making the collective decision

activities. These include scientific work, athletic achieve-

is so large that the role of each individual is insignificant.

ment, humanitarian work, artistic and literary creation,

[5]

climbing the corporate ladder, acquisition of money and

43. It is true that some individuals seem to have little

material goods far beyond the point at which they cease

need for autonomy. Either their drive for power is weak or

to give any additional physical satisfaction, and social ac-

they satisfy it by identifying themselves with some power-

tivism when it addresses issues that are not important for

ful organization to which they belong. And then there are

the activist personally, as in the case of white activists who

unthinking, animal types who seem to be satisfied with a

work for the rights of nonwhite minorities. These are not

purely physical sense of power (the good combat soldier,

always PURE surrogate activities, since for many people

who gets his sense of power by developing fighting skills

they may be motivated in part by needs other than the

that he is quite content to use in blind obedience to his

need to have some goal to pursue. Scientific work may be

superiors).

44. But for most people it is through the power process

variety of noise-making devices: power mowers, radios,

— having a goal, making an AUTONOMOUS effort and

motorcycles, etc. If the use of these devices is unrestric-

attaining the goal — that self-esteem, self-confidence and

ted, people who want peace and quiet are frustrated by

a sense of power are acquired. When one does not have

the noise. If their use is restricted, people who use the

adequate opportunity to go through the power process the

devices are frustrated by the regulations. But if these ma-

consequences are (depending on the individual and on

chines had never been invented there would have been no

the way the power process is disrupted) boredom, demo-

conflict and no frustration generated by them.)

ralization, low self-esteem, inferiority feelings, defeatism,

49. For primitive societies the natural world (which

depression, anxiety, guilt, frustration, hostility, spouse or

usually changes only slowly) provided a stable framework

child abuse, insatiable hedonism, abnormal sexual beha-

and therefore a sense of security. In the modern world it

vior, sleep disorders, eating disorders. etc. [6]

is human society that dominates nature rather than the

other way around, and modern society changes very ra-

pidly owing to technological change. Thus there is no

stable framework.

SOURCES OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS

50. The conservatives are fools: They whine about the

decay of traditional values, yet they enthusiastically sup-

45. Any of the foregoing symptoms can occur in any

port technological progress and economic growth. Appa-

society, but in modern industrial society they are present

rently it never occurs to them that you can’t make rapid,

on a massive scale. We aren’t the first to mention that the

drastic changes in the technology and the economy of a

world today seems to be going crazy. This sort of thing is

society without causing rapid changes in all other aspects

not normal for human societies. There is good reason to

of the society as well, and that such rapid changes inevi-

believe that primitive man suffered from less stress and

tably break down traditional values.

frustration and was better satisfied with his way of life

51. The breakdown of traditional values to some extent

than modern man is. It is true that not all was sweet-

implies the breakdown of the bonds that hold together

ness and light in primitive societies. Abuse of women was

traditional small-scale social groups. The disintegration

common among the Australian aborigines, transexuality

of small-scale social groups is also promoted by the fact

was fairly common among some of the American Indian

that modern conditions often require or tempt individuals

tribes. But it does appear that GENERALLY SPEAKING the

to move to new locations, separating themselves from

kinds of problems that we have listed in the preceding pa-

their communities. Beyond that, a technological society

ragraph were far less common among primitive peoples

HAS TO weaken family ties and local communities if it is

than they are in modern society.

to function efficiently. In modern society an individual’s

46. We attribute the social and psychological problems

loyalty must be first to the system and only secondarily to

of modern society to the fact that that society requires

a smallscale community, because if the internal loyalties

people to live under conditions radically different from

of small-scale communities were stronger than loyalty to

those under which the human race evolved and to be-

the system, such communities would pursue their own ad-

have in ways that conflict with the patterns of behavior

vantage at the expense of the system.

that the human race developed while living under the

52. Suppose that a public official or a corporation exe-

earlier conditions. It is clear from what we have already

cutive appoints his cousin, his friend or his co-religionist

written that we consider lack of opportunity to properly

to a position rather than appointing the person best qua-

experience the power process as the most important of

lified for the job. He has permitted personal loyalty to su-

the abnormal conditions to which modern society subjects

persede his loyalty to the system, and that is “nepotism”

people. But it is not the only one. Before dealing with dis-

or “discrimination,” both of which are terrible sins in mo-

ruption of the power process as a source of social pro-

dern society. Would-be industrial societies that have done

blems we will discuss some of the other sources.

a poor job of subordinating personal or local loyalties to

47. Among the abnormal conditions present in modern

loyalty to the system are usually very inefficient. (Look at

industrial society are excessive density of population, iso-

Latin America.) Thus an advanced industrial society can

lation of man from nature, excessive rapidity of social

tolerate only those small-scale communities that are emas-

change and the breakdown of natural small-scale commu-

culated, tamed and made into tools of the system. [7]

nities such as the extended family, the village or the tribe.

53. Crowding, rapid change and the breakdown of com-

48. It is well known that crowding increases stress and

munities have been widely recognized as sources of social

aggression. The degree of crowding that exists today and

problems. But we do not believe tbey are enough to ac-

the isolation of man from nature are consequences of tech-

count for the extent of the problems that are seen today.

nological progress. All pre-industrial societies were pre-

54. A few pre-industrial cities were very large and crow-

dominantly rural. The Industrial Revolution vastly increa-

ded, yet their inhabitants do not seem to have suffered

sed the size of cities and the proportion of the population

from psychological problems to the same extent as mo-

that lives in them, and modern agricultural technology

dern man. In America today there still are uncrowded ru-

has made it possible for the Earth to support a far den-

ral areas, and we find there the same problems as in urban

ser population than it ever did before. (Also, technology

areas, though the problems tend to be less acute in the ru-

exacerbates the effects of crowding because it puts increa-

ral areas. Thus crowding does not seem to be the decisive

sed disruptive powers in people’s hands. For example, a

factor.

55. On the growing edge of the American frontier du-

drives there are in the third group, the more there is frus-

ring the 19th century, the mobility of the population pro-

tration, anger, eventually defeatism, depression, etc.

bably broke down extended families and small-scale so-

60. In modern industrial society natural human drives

cial groups to at least the same extent as these are bro-

tend to be pushed into the first and third groups, and the

ken down today. In fact, many nuclear families lived by

second group tends to consist increasingly of artificially

choice in such isolation, having no neighbors within seve-

created drives.

ral miles, that they belonged to no community at all, yet

61. In primitive societies, physical necessities generally

they do not seem to have developed problems as a result.

fall into group 2: They can be obtained, but only at the

56. Furthermore, change in American frontier society

cost of serious effort. But modern society tends to gua-

was very rapid and deep. A man might be born and rai-

ranty the physical necessities to everyone [9] in exchange

sed in a log cabin, outside the reach of law and order and

for only minimal effort, hence physical needs are pushed

fed largely on wild meat; and by the time he arrived at

into group 1. (There may be disagreement about whether

old age he might be working at a regular job and living

the effort needed to hold a job is “minimal”; but usually,

in an ordered community with effective law enforcement.

in lower- to middle-level jobs, whatever effort is required

This was a deeper change than that which typically occurs

is merely that of OBEDIENCE. You sit or stand where you

in the life of a modern individual, yet it does not seem

are told to sit or stand and do what you are told to do in

to have led to psychological problems. In fact, 19th cen-

the way you are told to do it. Seldom do you have to exert

tury American society had an optimistic and self-confident

yourself seriously, and in any case you have hardly any

tone, quite unlike that of today’s society. [8]

autonomy in work, so that the need for the power process

57. The difference, we argue, is that modern man has

is not well served.)

the sense (largely justified) that change is IMPOSED on

62. Social needs, such as sex, love and status, often re-

him, whereas the 19th century frontiersman had the sense

main in group 2 in modern society, depending on the si-

(also largely justified) that he created change himself, by

tuation of the individual. [10] But, except for people who

his own choice. Thus a pioneer settled on a piece of land

have a particularly strong drive for status, the effort re-

of his own choosing and made it into a farm through his

quired to fulfill the social drives is insufficient to satisfy

own effort. In those days an entire county might have only

adequately the need for the power process.

a couple of hundred inhabitants and was a far more iso-

63. So certain artificial needs have been created that

lated and autonomous entity than a modern county is.

fall into group 2, hence serve the need for the power pro-

Hence the pioneer farmer participated as a member of a

cess. Advertising and marketing techniques have been de-

relatively small group in the creation of a new, ordered

veloped that make many people feel they need things that

community. One may well question whether the creation

their grandparents never desired or even dreamed of. It

of this community was an improvement, but at any rate it

requires serious effort to earn enough money to satisfy

satisfied the pioneer’s need for the power process.

these artificial needs, hence they fall into group 2. (But see

58. It would be possible to give other examples of so-

paragraphs 80-82.) Modern man must satisfy his need for

cieties in which there has been rapid change and/or lack

the power process largely through pursuit of the artificial

of close community ties without the kind of massive beha-

needs created by the advertising and marketing industry

vioral aberration that is seen in today’s industrial society.

[11], and through surrogate activities.

We contend that the most important cause of social and

64. It seems that for many people, maybe the majo-

psychological problems in modern society is the fact that

rity, these artificial forms of the power process are insuffi-

people have insufficient opportunity to go through the po-

cient. A theme that appears repeatediy in the writings of

wer process in a normal way. We don’t mean to say that

the social critics of the second half of the 20th century is

modern society is the only one in which the power process

the sense of purposelessness that afflicts many people in

has been disrupted. Probably most if not all civilized so-

modern society. (This purposelessness is often called by

cieties have interfered with the power process to a greater

other names such as “anomic” or “middle-class vacuity.”)

or lesser extent. But in modern industrial society the pro-

We suggest that the so-called “identity crisis” is actually

blem has become particularly acute. Leftism, at least in its

a search for a sense of purpose, often for commitment to

recent (mid- to late-20th century) form, is in part a symp-

a suitable surrogate activity. It may be that existentialism

tom of deprivation with respect to the power process.

is in large part a response to the purposelessness of mo-

dern life. [12] Very widespread in modern society is the

search for “fulfillment.” But we think that for the majority

of people an activity whose main goal is fulfillment (that

DISRUPTION OF THE POWER PROCESS IN

is, a surrogate activity) does not bring completely satis-

MODERN SOCIETY

factory fulfillment. In other words, it does not fully satisfy

the need for the power process. (See paragraph 41.) That

59. We divide human drives into three groups: (1) those

need can be fully satisfied only through activities that have

drives that can be satisfied with minimal effort; (2) those

some external goal, such as physical necessities, sex, love,

that can be satisfied but only at the cost of serious effort;

status, revenge, etc.

(3) those that cannot be adequately satisfied no matter

65. Moreover, where goals are pursued through earning

how much effort one makes. The power process is the pro-

money, climbing the status ladder or functioning as part of

cess of satisfying the drives of the second group. The more

the system in some other way, most people are not in a po-

sition to pursue their goals AUTONOMOUSLY. Most wor-

dence in our ability to take care of ourselves. Primitive

kers are someone else’s employee and, as we pointed out

man, threatened by a fierce animal or by hunger, can fight

in paragraph 61, must spend their days doing what they

in self-defense or travel in search of food. He has no cer-

are told to do in the way they are told to do it. Even most

tainty of success in these efforts, but he is by no means

people who are in business for themselves have only limi-

helpless against the things that threaten him. The mo-

ted autonomy. It is a chronic complaint of small-business

dern individual on the other hand is threatened by many

persons and entrepreneurs that their hands are tied by

things against which he is helpless: nuclear accidents, car-

excessive government regulation. Some of these regula-

cinogens in food, environmental pollution, war, increasing

tions are doubtless unnecessary, but for the most part go-

taxes, invasion of his privacy by large organizations, na-

vernment regulations are essential and inevitable parts of

tionwide social or economic phenomena that may disrupt

our extremely complex society. A large portion of small

his way of life.

business today operates on the franchise system. It was

69. It is true that primitive man is powerless against

reported in the Wall Street Journal a few years ago that

some of the things that threaten him; disease for example.

many of the franchise-granting companies require appli-

But he can accept the risk of disease stoically. It is part of

cants for franchises to take a personality test that is de-

the nature of things, it is no one’s fault, unless it is the fault

signed to EXCLUDE those who have creativity and initia-

of some imaginary, impersonal demon. But threats to the

tive, because such persons are not sufficiently docile to go

modern individual tend to be MAN-MADE. They are not

along obediently with the franchise system. This excludes

the results of chance but are IMPOSED on him by other

from small business many of the people who most need

persons whose decisions he, as an individual, is unable

autonomy.

to influence. Consequently he feels frustrated, humiliated

66. Today people live more by virtue of what the sys-

and angry.

tem does FOR them or TO them than by virtue of what

70. Thus primitive man for the most part has his se-

they do for themselves. And what they do for themselves

curity in his own hands (either as an individual or as a

is done more and more along channels laid down by the

member of a SMALL group) whereas the security of mo-

system. Opportunities tend to be those that the system

dern man is in the hands of persons or organizations that

provides, the opportunities must be exploited in accord

are too remote or too large for him to be able personally to

with rules and regulations [13], and techniques prescri-

influence them. So modern man’s drive for security tends

bed by experts must be followed if there is to be a chance

to fall into groups 1 and 3; in some areas (food, shelter

of success.

etc.) his security is assured at the cost of only trivial ef-

67. Thus the power process is disrupted in our society

fort, whereas in other areas he CANNOT attain security.

through a deficiency of real goals and a deficiency of au-

(The foregoing greatly simplifies the real situation, but it

tonomy in the pursuit of goals. But it is also disrupted

does indicate in a rough, general way how the condition

because of those human drives that fall into group 3:

of modern man differs from that of primitive man.)

the drives that one cannot adequately satisfy no matter

71. People have many transitory drives or impulses that

how much effort one makes. One of these drives is the

are necessarily frustrated in modern life, hence fall into

need for security. Our lives depend on decisions made by

group 3. One may become angry, but modern society can-

other people; we have no control over these decisions and

not permit fighting. In many situations it does not even

usually we do not even know the people who make them.

permit verbal aggression. When going somewhere one

(“We live in a world in which relatively few people —

may be in a hurry, or one may be in a mood to travel

maybe 500 or 1,000 — make the important decisions”,

slowly, but one generally has no choice but to move with

Philip B. Heymann of Harvard Law School, quoted by An-

the flow of traffic and obey the traffic signals. One may

thony Lewis, New York Times, April 21, 1995.) Our lives

want to do one’s work in a different way, but usually one

depend on whether safety standards at a nuclear power

can work only according to the rules laid down by one’s

plant are properly maintained; on how much pesticide is

employer. In many other ways as well, modern man is

allowed to get into our food or how much pollution into

strapped down by a network of rules and regulations (ex-

our air; on how skillful (or incompetent) our doctor is;

plicit or implicit) that frustrate many of his impulses and

whether we lose or get a job may depend on decisions

thus interfere with the power process. Most of these regu-

made by government economists or corporation execu-

lations cannot be dispensed with, because they are neces-

tives; and so forth. Most individuals are not in a position

sary for the functioning of industrial society.

to secure themselves against these threats to more [than]

72. Modern society is in certain respects extremely per-

a very limited extent. The individual’s search for security

missive. In matters that are irrelevant to the functioning

is therefore frustrated, which leads to a sense of power-

of the system we can generally do what we please. We

lessness.

can believe in any religion (as long as it does not encou-

68. It may be objected that primitive man is physically

rage behavior that is dangerous to the system). We can

less secure than modern man, as is shown by his shor-

go to bed with anyone we like (as long as we practice

ter life expectancy; hence modern man suffers from less,

“safe sex”). We can do anything we like as long as it is

not more than the amount of insecurity that is normal for

UNIMPORTANT. But in all IMPORTANT matters the sys-

human beings. But psychological security does not closely

tem tends increasingly to regulate our behavior.

correspond with physical security. What makes us FEEL se-

73. Behavior is regulated not only through explicit rules

cure is not so much objective security as a sense of confi-

and not only by the government. Control is often exer-

cised through indirect coercion or through psychological

that life.

pressure or manipulation, and by organizations other than

76. In response to the arguments of this section so-

the government, or by the system as a whole. Most large

meone will say, “Society must find a way to give people

organizations use some form of propaganda [14] to ma-

the opportunity to go through the power process.” This

nipulate public attitudes or behavior. Propaganda is not

won’t work for those who need autonomy in the power

limited to “commercials” and advertisements, and some-

process. For such people the value of the opportunity is

times it is not even consciously intended as propaganda

destroyed by the very fact that society gives it to them.

by the people who make it. For instance, the content of

What they need is to find or make their own opportuni-

entertainment programming is a powerful form of propa-

ties. As long as the system GIVES them their opportunities

ganda. An example of indirect coercion: There is no law

it still has them on a leash. To attain autonomy they must

that says we have to go to work every day and follow our

get off that leash.

employer’s orders. Legally there is nothing to prevent us

from going to live in the wild like primitive people or from

going into business for ourselves. But in practice there is

very little wild country left, and there is room in the eco-

HOW SOME PEOPLE ADJUST

nomy for only a limited number of small business owners.

Hence most of us can survive only as someone else’s em-

77. Not everyone in industrial-technological society suf-

ployee.

fers from psychological problems. Some people even pro-

74. We suggest that modern man’s obsession with lon-

fess to be quite satisfied with society as it is. We now dis-

gevity, and with maintaining physical vigor and sexual at-

cuss some of the reasons why people differ so greatly in

tractiveness to an advanced age, is a symptom of unful-

their response to modern society.

fillment resulting from deprivation with respect to the po-

78. First, there doubtless are differences in the strength

wer process. The “mid-lffe crisis” also is such a symptom.

of the drive for power. Individuals with a weak drive for

So is the lack of interest in having children that is fairly

power may have relatively little need to go through the

common in modern society but almost unheard-of in pri-

power process, or at least relatively little need for auto-

mitive societies.

nomy in the power process. These are docile types who

75. In primitive societies life is a succession of stages.

would have been happy as plantation darkies in the Old

The needs and purposes of one stage having been ful-

South. (We don’t mean to sneer at the “plantation darkies”

filled, there is no particular reluctance about passing on

of the Old South. To their credit, most of the slaves were

to the next stage. A young man goes through the power

NOT content with their servitude. We do sneer at people

process by becoming a hunter, hunting not for sport or for

who ARE content with servitude.)

fulfillment but to get meat that is necessary for food. (In

79. Some people may have some exceptional drive, in

young women the process is more complex, with greater

pursuing which they satisfy their need for the power pro-

emphasis on social power; we won’t discuss that here.)

cess. For example, those who have an unusually strong

This phase having been successfully passed through, the

drive for social status may spend their whole lives clim-

young man has no reluctance about settling down to the

bing the status ladder without ever getting bored with that

responsibilities of raising a family. (In contrast, some mo-

game.

dern people indefinitely postpone having children because

80. People vary in their susceptibility to advertising and

they are too busy seeking some kind of “fulfillment.” We

marketing techniques. Some are so susceptible that, even

suggest that the fulfillment they need is adequate expe-

if they make a great deal of money, they cannot satisfy

rience of the power process — with real goals instead

their constant craving for the the shiny new toys that the

of the artificial goals of surrogate activities.) Again, ha-

marketing industry dangles before their eyes. So they al-

ving successfully raised his children, going through the

ways feel hard-pressed financially even if their income is

power process by providing them with the physical neces-

large, and their cravings are frustrated.

sities, the primitive man feels that his work is done and

81. Some people have low susceptibility to adverti-

he is prepared to accept old age (if he survives that long)

sing and marketing techniques. These are the people who

and death. Many modern people, on the other hand, are

aren’t interested in money. Material acquisition does not

disturbed by the prospect of physical deterioration and

serve their need for the power process.

death, as is shown by the amount of effort they expend

82. People who have medium susceptibility to adverti-

trying to maintain their physical condition, appearance

sing and marketing techniques are able to earn enough

and health. We argue that this is due to unfulfillment re-

money to satisfy their craving for goods and services, but

sulting from the fact that they have never put their physi-

only at the cost of serious effort (putting in overtime, ta-

cal powers to any practical use, have never gone through

king a second job, earning promotions, etc.). Thus mate-

the power process using their bodies in a serious way. It

rial acquisition serves their need for the power process.

is not the primitive man, who has used his body daily for

But it does not necessarily follow that their need is fully

practical purposes, who fears the deterioration of age, but

satisfied. They may have insufficient autonomy in the po-

the modern man, who has never had a practical use for his

wer process (their work may consist of following orders)

body beyond walking from his car to his house. It is the

and some of their drives may be frustrated (e.g., security,

man whose need for the power process has been satisfied

aggression). (We are guilty of oversimplification in para-

during his life who is best prepared to accept the end of

graphs 80-82 because we have assumed that the desire

for material acquisition is entirely a creation of the ad-

vestment that accompanies it, is one of the most potent

vertising and marketing industry. Of course it’s not that

forces acting toward the continual development and per-

simple. [11]

fecting of the system, with negative consequences for in-

83. Some people partly satisfy their need for power

dividual freedom (see paragraph 131). Especially, for the

by identifying themselves with a powerful organization

most creative scientists and engineers, work tends to be

or mass movement. An individual lacking goals or power

largely a surrogate activity. This point is so important that

joins a movement or an organization, adopts its goals as

it deserves a separate discussion, which we shall give in a

his own, then works toward those goals. When some of

moment (paragraphs 87-92).

the goals are attained, the individual, even though his per-

85. In this section we have explained how many people

sonal efforts have played only an insignificant part in the

in modern society do satisfy their need for the power pro-

attainment of the goals, feels (through his identification

cess to a greater or lesser extent. But we think that for

with the movement or organization) as if he had gone

the majority of people the need for the power process is

through the power process. This phenomenon was exploi-

not fully satisfied. In the first place, those who have an

ted by the fascists, nazis and communists. Our society uses

insatiable drive for status, or who get firmly “hooked” on

it too, though less crudely. Example: Manuel Noriega was

a surrogate activity, or who identify strongly enough with

an irritant to the U.S. (goal: punish Noriega). The U.S.

a movement or organization to satisfy their need for po-

invaded Panama (effort) and punished Noriega (attain-

wer in that way, are exceptional personalities. Others are

ment of goal). Thus the U.S. went through the power pro-

not fully satisfied with surrogate activities or by identifi-

cess and many Americans, because of their identification

cation with an organization (see paragraphs 41, 64). In

with the U.S., experienced the power process vicariously.

the second place, too much control is imposed by the sys-

Hence the widespread public approval of the Panama in-

tem through explicit regulation or through socialization,

vasion; it gave people a sense of power. [15] We see the

which results in a deficiency of autonomy, and in frustra-

same phenomenon in armies, corporations, political par-

tion due to the impossibility of attaining certain goals and

ties, humanitarian organizations, religious or ideological

the necessity of restraining too many impulses.

movements. In particular, leftist movements tend to at-

86. But even if most people in industrial-technological

tract people who are seeking to satisfy their need for po-

society were well satisfied, we (FC) would still be opposed

wer. But for most people identification with a large organi-

to that form of society, because (among other reasons) we

zation or a mass movement does not fully satisfy the need

consider it demeaning to fulfill one’s need for the power

for power.

process through surrogate activities or through identifica-

84. Another way in which people satisfy their need

tion with an organization, rather than through pursuit of

for the power process is through surrogate activities. As

real goals.

we explained in paragraphs 38-40, a surrogate activity

is an activity that is directed toward an artificial goal

that the individual pursues for the sake of the “fulfill-

THE MOTIVES OF SCIENTISTS

ment” that he gets from pursuing the goal, not because

he needs to attain the goal itself. For instance, there is

no practical motive for building enormous muscles, hit-

87. Science and technology provide the most important

ting a little ball into a hole or acquiring a complete se-

examples of surrogate activities. Some scientists claim

ries of postage stamps. Yet many people in our society

that they are motivated by “curiosity” or by a desire to “be-

devote themselves with passion to bodybuilding, golf or

nefit humanity.” But it is easy to see that neither of these

stamp-collecting. Some people are more “other-directed”

can be the principal motive of most scientists. As for “cu-

than others, and therefore will more readily attach impor-

riosity,” that notion is simply absurd. Most scientists work

tance to a surrogate activity simply because the people

on highly specialized problems that are not the object of

around them treat it as important or because society tells

any normal curiosity. For example, is an astronomer, a ma-

them it is important. That is why some people get very

thematician or an entomologist curious about the proper-

serious about essentially trivial activities such as sports,

ties of isopropyltrimethylmethane? Of course not. Only a

or bridge, or chess, or arcane scholarly pursuits, whereas

chemist is curious about such a thing, and he is curious

others who are more clear-sighted never see these things

about it only because chemistry is his surrogate activity.

as anything but the surrogate activities that they are, and

Is the chemist curious about the appropriate classification

consequently never attach enough importance to them to

of a new species of beetle? No. That question is of interest

satisfy their need for the power process in that way. It only

only to the entomologist, and he is interested in it only be-

remains to point out that in many cases a person’s way of

cause entomology is his surrogate activity. If the chemist

earning a living is also a surrogate activity. Not a PURE

and the entomologist had to exert themselves seriously to

surrogate activity, since part of the motive for the activity

obtain the physical necessities, and if that effort exerci-

is to gain the physical necessities and (for some people)

sed their abilities in an interesting way but in some nons-

social status and the luxuries that advertising makes them

cientific pursuit, then they wouldn’t give a damn about

want. But many people put into their work far more ef-

isopropyltrimethylmethane or the classification of beetles.

fort than is necessary to earn whatever money and status

Suppose that lack of funds for postgraduate education had

they require, and this extra effort constitutes a surrogate

led the chemist to become an insurance broker instead of

activity. This extra effort, together with the emotional in-

a chemist. In that case he would have been very interested

in insurance matters but would have cared nothing about

THE NATURE OF FREEDOM

isopropyltrimethylmethane. In any case it is not normal to

put into the satisfaction of mere curiosity the amount of

93. We are going to argue that industrial-technological

time and effort that scientists put into their work. The “cu-

society cannot be reformed in such a way as to prevent it

riosity” explanation for the scientists’ motive just doesn’t

from progressively narrowing the sphere of human free-

stand up.

dom. But, because “freedom” is a word that can be inter-

88. The “benefit of humanity” explanation doesn’t work

preted in many ways, we must first make clear what kind

any better. Some scientific work has no conceivable rela-

of freedom we are concerned with.

tion to the welfare of the human race most of archaeo-

94. By

“freedom” we mean the opportunity to go

logy or comparative linguistics for example. Some other

through the power process, with real goals not the artifi-

areas of science present obviously dangerous possibilities.

cial goals of surrogate activities, and without interference,

Yet scientists in these areas are just as enthusiastic about

manipulation or supervision from anyone, especially from

their work as those who develop vaccines or study air pol-

any large organization. Freedom means being in control

lution. Consider the case of Dr. Edward Teller, who had

(either as an individual or as a member of a SMALL group)

an obvious emotional involvement in promoting nuclear

of the life-and-death issues of one’s existence: food, clo-

power plants. Did this involvement stem from a desire

thing, shelter and defense against whatever threats there

to benefit humanity? If so, then why didn’t Dr. Teller get

may be in one’s environment. Freedom means having po-

emotional about other “humanitarian” causes? If he was

wer; not the power to control other people but the power

such a humanitarian then why did he help to develop the

to control the circumstances of one’s own life. One does

H-bomb? As with many other scientific achievements, it is

not have freedom if anyone else (especially a large organi-

very much open to question whether nuclear power plants

zation) has power over one, no matter how benevolently,

actually do benefit humanity. Does the cheap electricity

tolerantly and permissively that power may be exercised.

outweigh the accumulating waste and the risk of acci-

It is important not to confuse freedom with mere permis-

dents? Dr. Teller saw only one side of the question. Clearly

siveness (see paragraph 72).

his emotional involvement with nuclear power arose not

95. It is said that we live in a free society because

from a desire to “benefit humanity” but from a personal

we have a certain number of constitutionally guaranteed

fulfillment he got from his work and from seeing it put to

rights. But these are not as important as they seem. The

practical use.

degree of personal freedom that exists in a society is de-

89. The same is true of scientists generally. With pos-

termined more by the economic and technological struc-

sible rare exceptions, their motive is neither curiosity nor

ture of the society than by its laws or its form of govern-

a desire to benefit humanity but the need to go through

ment. [16] Most of the Indian nations of New England

the power process: to have a goal (a scientific problem to

were monarchies, and many of the cities of the Italian

solve), to make an effort (research) and to attain the goal

Renaissance were controlled by dictators. But in reading

(solution of the problem.) Science is a surrogate activity

about these societies one gets the impression that they al-

because scientists work mainly for the fulfillment they get

lowed far more personal freedom than our society does.

out of the work itself.

In part this was because they lacked efficient mechanisms

90. Of course, it’s not that simple. Other motives do play

for enforcing the ruler’s will: There were no modern, well-

a role for many scientists. Money and status for example.

organized police forces, no rapid long-distance communi-

Some scientists may be persons of the type who have an

cations, no surveillance cameras, no dossiers of informa-

insatiable drive for status (see paragraph 79) and this may

tion about the lives of average citizens. Hence it was rela-

provide much of the motivation for their work. No doubt

tively easy to evade control.

the majority of scientists, like the majority of the general

96. As for our constitutional rights, consider for

population, are more or less susceptible to advertising and

example that of freedom of the press. We certainly don’t

marketing techniques and need money to satisfy their cra-

mean to knock that right; it is very important tool for li-

ving for goods and services. Thus science is not a PURE

miting concentration of political power and for keeping

surrogate activity. But it is in large part a surrogate acti-

those who do have political power in line by publicly ex-

vity.

posing any misbehavior on their part. But freedom of the

91. Also, science and technology constitute a power

press is of very little use to the average citizen as an in-

dividual. The mass media are mostly under the control

mass movement, and many scientists gratify their need

of large organizations that are integrated into the system.

for power through identification with this mass movement

Anyone who has a little money can have something prin-

(see paragraph 83).

ted, or can distribute it on the Internet or in some such

92. Thus science marches on blindly, without regard

way, but what he has to say will be swamped by the vast

to the real welfare of the human race or to any other

volume of material put out by the media, hence it will

standard, obedient only to the psychological needs of the

have no practical effect. To make an impression on society

scientists and of the government of ficials and corporation

with words is therefore almost impossible for most indivi-

executives who provide the funds for research.

duals and small groups. Take us (FC) for example. If we

had never done anything violent and had submitted the

present writings to a publisher, they probably would not

have been accepted. If they had been been accepted and

published, they probably would not have attracted many

SOME PRINCIPLES OF HISTORY

readers, because it’s more fun to watch the entertainment

put out by the media than to read a sober essay. Even ff

99. Think of history as being the sum of two compo-

these writings had had many readers, most of these rea-

nents: an erratic component that consists of unpredictable

ders would soon have forgotten what they had read as

events that follow no discernible pattern, and a regular

their minds were flooded by the mass of material to which

component that consists of long-term historical trends.

the media expose them. In order to get our message before

Here we are concerned with the long-term trends.

the public with some chance of making a lasting impres-

100. FIRST PRINCIPLE. If a SMALL change is made that

sion, we’ve had to kill people.

affects a long-term historical trend, then the effect of that

97. Constitutional rights are useful up to a point, but

change will almost always be transitory — the trend will

they do not serve to guarantee much more than what

soon revert to its original state. (Example: A reform move-

might be called the bourgeois conception of freedom. Ac-

ment designed to clean up political corruption in a society

cording to the bourgeois conception, a “free” man is essen-

rarely has more than a short-term effect; sooner or later

tially an element of a social machine and has only a cer-

the reformers relax and corruption creeps back in. The

tain set of prescribed and delimited freedoms; freedoms

level of political corruption in a given society tends to re-

that are designed to serve the needs of the social machine

main constant, or to change only slowly with the evolution

more than those of the individual. Thus the bourgeois’s

of the society. Normally, a political cleanup will be perma-

“free” man has economic freedom because that promotes

nent only if accompanied by widespread social changes; a

growth and progress; he has freedom of the press because

SMALL change in the society won’t be enough.) If a small

public criticism restrains misbehavior by political leaders;

change in a long-term historical trend appears to be per-

he has a right to a fair trial because imprisonment at the

manent, it is only because the change acts in the direction

whim of the powerful would be bad for the system. This

in which the trend is already moving, so that the trend is

was clearly the attitude of Simon Bolivar. To him, people

not altered by only pushed a step ahead.

deserved liberty only if they used it to promote progress

(progress as conceived by the bourgeois). Other bourgeois

101. The first principle is almost a tautology. If a trend

thinkers have taken a similar view of freedom as a mere

were not stable with respect to small changes, it would

wander at random rather than following a definite direc-

means to collective ends. Chester C. Tan, “Chinese Politi-

tion; in other words it would not be a long-term trend at

cal Thought in the Twentieth Century,” page 202, explains

the philosophy of the Kuomintang leader Hu Han-min:

all.

“An individual is granted rights because he is a member

102. SECOND PRINCIPLE. If a change is made that is

of society and his community life requires such rights. By

sufficiently large to alter permanently a long-term histori-

community Hu meant the whole society of the nation.”

cal trend, then it will alter the society as a whole. In other

And on page 259 Tan states that according to Carsum

words, a society is a system in which all parts are inter-

Chang (Chang Chun-mai, head of the State Socialist Party

related, and you can’t permanently change any important

in China) freedom had to be used in the interest of the

part without changing all other parts as well.

state and of the people as a whole. But what kind of free-

103. THIRD PRINCIPLE. If a change is made that is

dom does one have if one can use it only as someone else

large enough to alter permanently a long-term trend, then

prescribes? FC’s conception of freedom is not that of Bo-

the consequences for the society as a whole cannot be pre-

livar, Hu, Chang or other bourgeois theorists. The trouble

dicted in advance. (Unless various other societies have

with such theorists is that they have made the develop-

passed through the same change and have all experien-

ment and application of social theories their surrogate ac-

ced the same consequences, in which case one can pre-

tivity. Consequently the theories are designed to serve the

dict on empirical grounds that another society that passes

needs of the theorists more than the needs of any people

through the same change will be like to experience similar

who may be unlucky enough to live in a society on which

consequences.)

the theories are imposed.

104. FOURTH PRINCIPLE. A new kind of society cannot

98. One more point to be made in this section: It should

be designed on paper. That is, you cannot plan out a new

not be assumed that a person has enough freedom just

form of society in advance, then set it up and expect it to

because he SAYS he has enough. Freedom is restricted in

function as it was designed to do.

part by psychological controls of which people are uncons-

105. The third and fourth principles result from the

cious, and moreover many people’s ideas of what consti-

complexity of human societies. A change in human be-

tutes freedom are governed more by social convention

havior will affect the economy of a society and its physi-

than by their real needs. For example, it’s likely that many

cal environment; the economy will affect the environment

leftists of the oversocialized type would say that most

and vice versa, and the changes in the economy and the

people, including themselves, are socialized too little ra-

environment will affect human behavior in complex, un-

ther than too much, yet the oversocialized leftist pays a

predictable ways; and so forth. The network of causes and

heavy psychological price for his high level of socializa-

effects is far too complex to be untangled and understood.

tion.

106. FIFTH PRINCIPLE. People do not consciously and

rationally choose the form of their society. Societies de-

velop through processes of social evolution that are not

under rational human control.

107. The fifth principle is a consequence of the other

mine one’s thinking and retain the conclusion only if one

four.

has good, solid reasons for doing so.

108. To illustrate: By the first principle, generally spea-

INDUSTRIAL-TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY CANNOT BE

king an attempt at social reform either acts in the direction

REFORMED

in which the society is developing anyway (so that it me-

111. The foregoing principles help to show how hope-

rely accelerates a change that would have occurred in any

lessly difficult it would be to reform the industrial system

case) or else it has only a transitory effect, so that the so-

in such a way as to prevent it from progressively narro-

ciety soon slips back into its old groove. To make a lasting

wing our sphere of freedom. There has been a consistent

change in the direction of development of any important

tendency, going back at least to the Industrial Revolu-

aspect of a society, reform is insufficient and revolution is

tion for technology to strengthen the system at a high

required. (A revolution does not necessarily involve an ar-

cost in individual freedom and local autonomy. Hence

med uprising or the overthrow of a government.) By the

any change designed to protect freedom from technology

second principle, a revolution never changes only one as-

would be contrary to a fundamental trend in the develop-

pect of a society, it changes the whole society; and by the

ment of our society. Consequently, such a change either

third principle changes occur that were never expected

would be a transitory one — soon swamped by the tide

or desired by the revolutionaries. By the fourth principle,

of history — or, if large enough to be permanent would

when revolutionaries or utopians set up a new kind of so-

alter the nature of our whole society. This by the first

ciety, it never works out as planned.

and second principles. Moreover, since society would be

109. The American Revolution does not provide a coun-

altered in a way that could not be predicted in advance

terexample. The American “Revolution” was not a revo-

(third principle) there would be great risk. Changes large

lution in our sense of the word, but a war of indepen-

enough to make a lasting difference in favor of freedom

dence followed by a rather far-reaching political reform.

would not be initiated because it would be realized that

The Founding Fathers did not change the direction of de-

they would gravely disrupt the system. So any attempts at

velopment of American society, nor did they aspire to do

reform would be too timid to be effective. Even if changes

so. They only freed the development of American society

large enough to make a lasting difference were initiated,

from the retarding effect of British rule. Their political

they would be retracted when their disruptive effects be-

reform did not change any basic trend, but only pushed

came apparent. Thus, permanent changes in favor of free-

American political culture along its natural direction of

dom could be brought about only by persons prepared to

development. British society, of which American society

accept radical, dangerous and unpredictable alteration of

was an offshoot, had been moving for a long time in the

the entire system. In other words by revolutionaries, not

direction of representative democracy. And prior to the

reformers.

War of Independence the Americans were already prac-

112. People anxious to rescue freedom without sacri-

ticing a significant degree of representative democracy in

ficing the supposed benefits of technology will suggest

the colonial assemblies. The political system established

naive schemes for some new form of society that would re-

by the Constitution was modeled on the British system

concile freedom with technology. Apart from the fact that

and on the colonial assemblies. With major alteration, to

people who make such suggestions seldom propose any

be sure — there is no doubt that the Founding Fathers took

practical means by which the new form of society could

a very important step. But it was a step along the road that

be set up in the first place, it follows from the fourth prin-

English-speaking world was already traveling. The proof

ciple that even if the new form of society could be once

is that Britain and all of its colonies that were popula-

established, it either would collapse or would give results

ted predominantly by people of British descent ended up

very different from those expected.

with systems of representative democracy essentially si-

113. So even on very general grounds it seems highly

milar to that of the United States. If the Founding Fathers

improbable that any way of changing society could be

had lost their nerve and declined to sign the Declaration of

found that would reconcile freedom with modern tech-

Independence, our way of lffe today would not have been

nology. In the next few sections we will give more speci-

significantly different. Maybe we would have had somew-

fic reasons for concluding that freedom and technological

hat closer ties to Britain, and would have had a Parliament

progress are incompatible.

and Prime Minister instead of a Congress and President.

No big deal. Thus the American Revolution provides not

a counterexample to our principles but a good illustration

RESTRICTION OF FREEDOM IS

of them.

UNAVOIDABLE IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

110. Still, one has to use common sense in applying

the principles. They are expressed in imprecise language

114. As explained in paragraphs 65-67, 70-73, modern

that allows latitude for interpretation, and exceptions to

man is strapped down by a network of rules and regula-

them can be found. So we present these principles not as

tions, and his fate depends on the actions of persons re-

inviolable laws but as rules of thumb, or guides to thin-

mote from him whose decisions he cannot influence. This

king, that may provide a partial antidote to naive ideas

is not accidental or a result of the arbitrariness of arrogant

about the future of society. The principles should be borne

bureaucrats. It is necessary and inevitable in any technolo-

constantly in mind, and whenever one reaches a conciu-

gically advanced society. The system HAS TO regulate hu-

sion that conflicts with them one should carefully reexa-

man behavior closely in order to function. At work people

have to do what they are told to do, otherwise production

ful in making people feel better, it would be demeaning.

would be thrown into chaos. Bureaucracies HAVE TO be

118. Conservatives and some others advocate more “lo-

run according to rigid rules. To allow any substantial per-

cal autonomy.” Local communities once did have auto-

sonal discretion to lower-level bureaucrats would disrupt

nomy, but such autonomy becomes less and less pos-

the system and lead to charges of unfairness due to dif-

sible as local communities become more enmeshed with

ferences in the way individual bureaucrats exercised their

and dependent on large-scale systems like public utilities,

discretion. It is true that some restrictions on our freedom

computer networks, highway systems, the mass communi-

could be eliminated, but GENERALLY SPEAKING the re-

cations media, the modern health care system. Also ope-

gulation of our lives by large organizations is necessary

rating against autonomy is the fact that technology ap-

for the functioning of industrial-technological society. The

plied in one location often affects people at other locations

result is a sense of powerlessness on the part of the ave-

far way. Thus pesticide or chemical use near a creek may

rage person. It may be, however, that formal regulations

contaminate the water supply hundreds of miles downs-

will tend increasingly to be replaced by psychological tools

tream, and the greenhouse effect affects the whole world.

that make us want to do what the system requires of us.

119. The system does not and cannot exist to satisfy

(Propaganda [14], educational techniques, “mental heal-

human needs. Instead, it is human behavior that has to

th” programs, etc.)

be modified to fit the needs of the system. This has no-

115. The system HAS TO force people to behave in ways

thing to do with the political or social ideology that may

that are increasingly remote from the natural pattern of

pretend to guide the technological system. It is not the

human behavior. For example, the system needs scientists,

fault of capitalism and it is not the fault of socialism. It

mathematicians and engineers. It can’t function without

is the fault of technology, because the system is guided

them. So heavy pressure is put on children to excel in

not by ideology but by technical necessity. [18] Of course

these fields. It isn’t natural for an adolescent human being

the system does satisfy many human needs, but generally

to spend the bulk of his time sitting at a desk absorbed in

speaking it does this only to the extend that it is to the

study. A normal adolescent wants to spend his time in ac-

advantage of the system to do it. It is the needs of the sys-

tive contact with the real world. Among primitive peoples

tem that are paramount, not those of the human being.

the things that children are trained to do tend to be in rea-

For example, the system provides people with food be-

sonable harmony with natural human impulses. Among

cause the system couldn’t function if everyone starved; it

the American Indians, for example, boys were trained in

attends to people’s psychological needs whenever it can

active outdoor pursuits — just the sort of thing that boys

CONVENIENTLY do so, because it couldn’t function if too

like. But in our society children are pushed into studying

many people became depressed or rebellious. But the sys-

technical subjects, which most do grudgingly.

tem, for good, solid, practical reasons, must exert constant

116. Because of the constant pressure that the system

pressure on people to mold their behavior to the needs

exerts to modify human behavior, there is a gradual in-

of the system. To much waste accumulating? The govern-

crease in the number of people who cannot or will not ad-

ment, the media, the educational system, environmenta-

just to society’s requirements: welfare leeches, youth gang

lists, everyone inundates us with a mass of propaganda

members, cultists, anti-government rebels, radical envi-

about recycling. Need more technical personnel? A chorus

ronmentalist saboteurs, dropouts and resisters of various

of voices exhorts kids to study science. No one stops to ask

kinds.

whether it is inhumane to force adolescents to spend the

117. In any technologically advanced society the indivi-

bulk of their time studying subjects most of them hate.

dual’s fate MUST depend on decisions that he personally

When skilled workers are put out of a job by technical

cannot influence to any great extent. A technological so-

advances and have to undergo “retraining,” no one asks

ciety cannot be broken down into small, autonomous com-

whether it is humiliating for them to be pushed around in

munities, because production depends on the cooperation

this way. It is simply taken for granted that everyone must

of very large numbers of people and machines. Such a

bow to technical necessity. and for good reason: If human

society MUST be highly organized and decisions HAVE

needs were put before technical necessity there would be

TO be made that affect very large numbers of people.

economic problems, unemployment, shortages or worse.

When a decision affects, say, a million people, then each

The concept of “mental health” in our society is defined

of the affected individuals has, on the average, only a one-

largely by the extent to which an individual behaves in

millionth share in making the decision. What usually hap-

accord with the needs of the system and does so without

pens in practice is that decisions are made by public offi-

showing signs of stress.

cials or corporation executives, or by technical specialists,

120. Efforts to make room for a sense of purpose and

but even when the public votes on a decision the number

for autonomy within the system are no better than a joke.

of voters ordinarily is too large for the vote of any one

For example, one company, instead of having each of its

individual to be significant. [17] Thus most individuals

employees assemble only one section of a catalogue, had

are unable to influence measurably the major decisions

each assemble a whole catalogue, and this was supposed

that affect their lives. There is no conceivable way to re-

to give them a sense of purpose and achievement. Some

medy this in a technologically advanced society. The sys-

companies have tried to give their employees more auto-

tem tries to “solve” this problem by using propaganda to

nomy in their work, but for practical reasons this usually

make people WANT the decisions that have been made for

can be done only to a very limited extent, and in any case

them, but even if this “solution” were completely success-

employees are never given autonomy as to ultimate goals

— their “autonomous” efforts can never be directed to-

it would only make matters worse. A code of ethics appli-

ward goals that they select personally, but only toward

cable to genetic engineering would be in effect a means of

their employer’s goals, such as the survival and growth of

regulating the genetic constitution of human beings. So-

the company. Any company would soon go out of business

mebody (probably the upper-middle class, mostly) would

if it permitted its employees to act otherwise. Similarly, in

decide that such and such applications of genetic enginee-

any enterprise within a socialist system, workers must di-

ring were “ethical”. and others were not, so that in effect

rect their efforts toward the goals of the enterprise, other-

they would be imposing their own values on the genetic

wise the enterprise will not serve its purpose as part of the

constitution of the population at large. Even if a code of

system. Once again, for purely technical reasons it is not

ethics were chosen on a completely democratic basis, the

possible for most individuals or small groups to have much

majority would be imposing their own values on any mi-

autonomy in industrial society. Even the small-business

norities who might have a different idea of what consti-

owner commonly has only limited autonomy. Apart from

tuted an “ethical” use of genetic engineering. The only

the necessity of government regulation, he is restricted by

code of ethics that would truly protect freedom would be

the fact that he must fit into the economic system and

one that prohibited ANY genetic engineering of human

conform to its requirements. For instance, when someone

beings, and you can be sure that no such code will ever

develops a new technology, the small- business person of-

be applied in a technological society. No code that redu-

ten has to use that technology whether he wants to or not,

ced genetic engineering to a minor role could stand up for

in order to remain competitive.

long, because the temptation presented by the immense

THE ’BAD’ PARTS OF TECHNOLOGY CANNOT BE SE-

power of biotechnology would be irresistible, especially

PARATED FROM THE ’GOOD’ PARTS

since to the majority of people many of its applications

121. A further reason why industrial society cannot be

will seem obviously and unequivocally good (eliminating

reformed in favor of freedom is that modern technology

physical and mental diseases, giving people the abilities

is a unified system in which all parts are dependent on

they need to get along in today’s world). Inevitably, gene-

one another. You can’t get rid of the “bad” parts of techno-

tic engineering will be used extensively, but only in ways

logy and retain only the “good” parts. Take modern medi-

consistent with the needs of the industrial-technological

cine, for example. Progress in medical science depends on

system. [20]

progress in chemistry, physics, biology, computer science

and other fields. Advanced medical treatments require ex-

pensive, high-tech equipment that can be made available

TECHNOLOGY IS A MORE POWERFUL

only by a technologically progressive, economically rich

society. Clearly you can’t have much Progress in medicine

SOCIAL FORCE THAN THE ASPIRATION FOR

without the whole technological system and everything

FREEDOOM

that goes with it.

122. Even if medical progress could be maintained wi-

125. It is not possible to make a LASTING compromise

thout the rest of the technological system, it would by it-

between technology and freedom, because technology is

self bring certain evils. Suppose for example that a cure

by far the more powerful social force and continually en-

for diabetes is discovered. People with a genetic tendency

croaches on freedom through REPEATED compromises.

to diabetes will then be able to survive and reproduce as

Imagine the case of two neighbors, each of whom at the

well as anyone else. Natural selection against genes for

outset owns the same amount of land, but one of whom is

diabetes will cease and such genes will spread throughout

more powerful than the other. The powerful one demands

the population. (This may be occurring to some extent al-

a piece of the other’s land. The weak one refuses. The

ready, since diabetes, while not curable, can be controlled

powerful one says, “OK, let’s compromise. Give me half

through use of insulin.) The same thing will happen with

of what I asked.” The weak one has little choice but to

many other diseases susceptibility to which is affected by

give in. Some time later the powerful neighbor demands

genetic degradation of the population. The only solution

another piece of land, again there is a compromise, and

will be some sort of eugenics program or extensive gene-

so forth. By forcing a long series of compromises on the

tic engineering of human beings, so that man in the fu-

weaker man, the powerful one eventually gets all of his

ture will no longer be a creation of nature, or of chance,

land. So it goes in the conflict between technology and

or of God (depending on your religious or philosophical

freedom.

opinions), but a manufactured product.

126. Let us explain why technology is a more powerful

123. If you think that big government interferes in your

social force than the aspiration for freedom.

life too much NOW, just wait till the government starts re-

127. A technological advance that appears not to threa-

gulating the genetic constitution of your children. Such re-

ten freedom often turns out to threaten it very seriously

gulation will inevitably follow the introduction of genetic

later on. For example, consider motorized transport. A

engineering of human beings, because the consequences

walking man formerly could go where he pleased, go at

of unregulated genetic engineering would be disastrous.

his own pace without observing any traffic regulations,

[19]

and was independent of technological support-systems.

124. The usual response to such concerns is to talk

When motor vehicles were introduced they appeared to

about “medical ethics.” But a code of ethics would not

increase man’s freedom. They took no freedom away from

serve to protect freedom in the face of medical progress;

the walking man, no one had to have an automobile if he

didn’t want one, and anyone who did choose to buy an

can never be reversed. Once a technical innovation has

automobile could travel much faster and farther than a

been introduced, people usually become dependent on it,

walking man. But the introduction of motorized transport

so that they can never again do without it, unless it is re-

soon changed society in such a way as to restrict greatly

placed by some still more advanced innovation. Not only

man’s freedom of locomotion. When automobiles became

do people become dependent as individuals on a new item

numerous, it became necessary to regulate their use ex-

of technology, but, even more, the system as a whole be-

tensively. In a car, especially in densely populated areas,

comes dependent on it. (Imagine what would happen to

one cannot just go where one likes at one’s own pace;

the system today if computers, for example, were elimi-

one’s movement is governed by the flow of traffic and by

nated.) Thus the system can move in only one direction,

various traffic laws. One is tied down by various obliga-

toward greater technologization. Technology repeatedly

tions: license requirements, driver test, renewing registra-

forces freedom to take a step back, but technology can

tion, insurance, maintenance required for safety, monthly

never take a step back — short of the overthrow of the

payments on purchase price. Moreover, the use of moto-

whole technological system.

rized transport is no longer optional. Since the introduc-

130. TechnoIogy advances with great rapidity and

tion of motorized transport the arrangement of our cities

threatens freedom at many different points at the same

has changed in such a way that the majority of people

time (crowding, rules and regulations, increasing depen-

no longer live within walking distance of their place of

dence of individuals on large organizations, propaganda

employment, shopping areas and recreational opportuni-

and other psychological techniques, genetic engineering,

ties, so that they HAVE TO depend on the automobile for

invasion of privacy through surveillance devices and com-

transportation. Or else they must use public transporta-

puters, etc.). To hold back any ONE of the threats to free-

tion, in which case they have even less control over their

dom would require a long and difficult social struggle.

own movement than when driving a car. Even the walker’s

Those who want to protect freedom are overwhelmed by

freedom is now greatly restricted. In the city he conti-

the sheer number of new attacks and the rapidity with

nually has to stop to wait for traffic lights that are desi-

which they develop, hence they become apathetic and no

gned mainly to serve auto traffic. In the country, motor

longer resist. To fight each of the threats separately would

traffic makes it dangerous and unpleasant to walk along

be futile. Success can be hoped for only by fighting the

the highway. (Note this important point that we have just

technological system as a whole; but that is revolution,

illustrated with the case of motorized transport: When a

not reform.

new item of technology is introduced as an option that an

131. Technicians (we use this term in its broad sense to

individual can accept or not as he chooses, it does not ne-

describe all those who perform a specialized task that re-

cessarily REMAIN optional. In many cases the new techno-

quires training) tend to be so involved in their work (their

logy changes society in such a way that people eventually

surrogate activity) that when a conflict arises between

find themselves FORCED to use it.)

their technical work and freedom, they almost always de-

128. While technological progress AS A WHOLE conti-

cide in favor of their technical work. This is obvious in

nually narrows our sphere of freedom, each new techni-

the case of scientists, but it also appears elsewhere: edu-

cal advance CONSIDERED BY ITSELF appears to be de-

cators, humanitarian groups, conservation organizations

sirable. Electricity, indoor plumbing, rapid long-distance

do not hesitate to use propaganda[14] or other psycholo-

communications... how could one argue against any of

gical techniques to help them achieve their laudable ends.

these things, or against any other of the innumerable tech-

Corporations and government agencies, when they find it

nical advances that have made modern society? It would

useful, do not hesitate to collect information about indi-

have been absurd to resist the introduction of the tele-

viduals without regard to their privacy. Law enforcement

phone, for example. It offered many advantages and no

agencies are frequently inconvenienced by the constitu-

disadvantages. Yet, as we explained in paragraphs 59-76,

tional rights of suspects and often of completely innocent

all these technical advances taken together have created a

persons, and they do whatever they can do legally (or so-

world in which the average man’s fate is no longer in his

metimes illegally) to restrict or circumvent those rights.

own hands or in the hands of his neighbors and friends,

Most of these educators, government officials and law offi-

but in those of politicians, corporation executives and re-

cers believe in freedom, privacy and constitutional rights,

mote, anonymous technicians and bureaucrats whom he

but when these conflict with their work, they usually feel

as an individual has no power to influence. [21] The same

that their work is more important.

process will continue in the future. Take genetic enginee-

132. It is well known that people generally work bet-

ring, for example. Few people will resist the introduction

ter and more persistently when striving for a reward

of a genetic technique that eliminates a hereditary disease.

than when attempting to avoid a punishment or negative

It does no apparent harm and prevents.much suffering.

outcome. Scientists and other technicians are motivated

Yet a large number of genetic improvements taken toge-

mainly by the rewards they get through their work. But

ther will make the human being into an engineered pro-

those who oppose technological invasions of freedom are

duct rather than a free creation of chance (or of God, or

working to avoid a negative outcome, consequently there

whatever, depending on your religious beliefs).

are few who work persistently and well at this discoura-

129. Another reason why technology is such a powerful

ging task. If reformers ever achieved a signal victory that

social force is that, within the context of a given society,

seemed to set up a solid barrier against further erosion of

technological progress marches in only one direction; it

freedom through technical progress, most would tend to

relax and turn their attention to more agreeable pursuits.

SIMPLER SOCIAL PROBLEMS HAVE PROVED

But the scientists would remain busy in their laboratories,

INTRACTABLE

and technology as it progresses would find ways, in spite

of any barriers, to exert more and more control over in-

136. If anyone still imagines that it would be possible

dividuals and make them always more dependent on the

to reform the system in such a way as to protect free-

system.

dom from technology, let him consider how clumsily and

133. No social arrangements, whether laws, institu-

for the most part unsuccessfully our society has dealt

tions, customs or ethical codes, can provide permanent

with other social problems that are far more simple and

protection against technology. History shows that all so-

straighfforward. Among other things, the system has fai-

cial arrangements are transitory; they all change or break

led to stop environmental degradation, political corrup-

down eventually. But technological advances are perma-

tion, drug trafficking or domestic abuse.

nent within the context of a given civilization. Suppose

137. Take our environmental problems, for example.

for example that it were possible to arrive at some so-

Here the conflict of values is straightforward: economic

cial arrangements that would prevent genetic engineering

expedience now versus saving some of our natural re-

from being applied to human beings, or prevent it from

sources for our grandchildren. [22] But on this subject we

being applied in such a way as to threaten freedom and di-

get only a lot of blather and obfuscation from the people

gnity. Still, the technology would remain waiting. Sooner

who have power, and nothing like a clear, consistent

or later the social arrangement would break down. Proba-

line of action, and we keep on piling up environmental

bly sooner, given the pace of change in our society. Then

problems that our grandchildren will have to live with.

genetic engineering would begin to invade our sphere of

Attempts to resolve the environmental issue consist of

freedom. and this invasion would be irreversible (short

struggles and compromises between different factions,

of a breakdown of technological civilization itself). Any

some of which are ascendant at one moment, others at

illusions about achieving anything permanent through so-

another moment. The line of struggle changes with the

cial arrangements should be dispelled by what is currently

shifting currents of public opinion. This is not a ratio-

happening with environmental legislation. A few years

nal process, nor is it one that is likely to lead to a timely

ago its seemed that there were secure legal barriers pre-

and successful solution to the problem. Major social pro-

venting at least SOME of the worst forms of environmen-

blems, if they get “solved” at all, are rarely or never solved

tal degradation. A change in the political wind, and those

through any rational, comprehensive plan. They just work

barriers begin to crumble.

themselves out through a process in which various compe-

134. For all of the foregoing reasons, technology is a

ting groups pursuing their own (usually short-term) self-

more powerful social force than the aspiration for free-

interest [23] arrive (mainly by luck) at some more or less

dom. But this statement requires an important qualifica-

stable modus vivendi. In fact, the principles we formula-

tion. It appears that during the next several decades the

ted in paragraphs 100-106 make it seem doubtful that ra-

industrial-technological system will be undergoing severe

tional long-term social planning can EVER be successful.

stresses due to economic and environmental problems,

138. Thus it is clear that the human race has at best a

and especially due to problems of human behavior (alie-

very limited capacity for solving even relatively straight-

nation, rebellion, hostility, a variety of social and psy-

forward social problems. How then is it going to solve the

chological difficulties). We hope that the stresses through

far more difficult and subtle problem of reconciling free-

which the system is likely to pass will cause it to break

dom with technology? Technology presents clear-cut ma-

down, or at least will weaken it sufficiently so that a re-

terial advantages, whereas freedom is an abstraction that

volution against it becomes possible. If such a revolution

means different things to different people. and its loss is

occurs and is successful, then at that particular moment

easily obscured by propaganda and fancy talk.

the aspiration for freedom will have proved more power-

139. And note this important difference: It is concei-

ful than technology.

vable that our environmental problems (for example) may

135. In paragraph 125 we used an analogy of a weak

some day be settled through a rational, comprehensive

neighbor who is left destitute by a strong neighbor who

plan, but if this happens it will be only because it is in

takes all his land by forcing on him a series of compro-

the longterm interest of the system to solve these pro-

mises. But suppose now that the strong neighbor gets sick,

blems. But it is NOT in the interest of the system to pre-

so tha he is unable to defend himself. The weak neigh-

serve freedom or small-group autonomy. On the contrary,

bor can force the strong one to give him his land back,

it is in the interest of the system to bring human beha-

or he can kill him. If he lets the strong man survive and

vior under control to the greatest possible extent. [24]

only forces him to give the land back, he is a fool, because

Thus, while practical considerations may eventually force

when the strong man gets well he will again take all the

the system to take a rational, prudent approach to envi-

land for himself. The only sensible alternative for the wea-

ronmental problems, equally practical considerations will

ker man is to kill the strong one while he has the chance.

force the system to regulate human behavior ever more

In the same way, while the industrial system is sick we

closely (preferably by indirect means that will disguise

must destroy it. If we compromise with it and let it reco-

the encroachment on freedom). This isn’t just our opi-

ver from its sickness, it will eventually wipe out all of our

nion. Eminent social scientists (e.g. James Q. Wilson)

freedom.

have stressed the importance of “socializing” people more

effectively.

mold that society requires). In the past, human nature

has been approximately constant, or at any rate has va-

ried only within certain bounds. Consequently, societies

REVOLUTION IS EASIER THAN REFORM

have been able to push people only up to certain limits.

When the limit of human endurance has been passed,

140. We hope we have convinced the reader that the

things start going wrong: rebellion, or crime, or corrup-

system cannot be reformed in such a way as to reconcile

tion, or evasion of work, or depression and other mental

freedom with technology. The only way out is to dispense

problems, or an elevated death rate, or a declining birth

with the industrialtechnological system altogether. This

rate or something else, so that either the society breaks

implies revolution, not necessarily an armed uprising, but

down, or its functioning becomes too inefficient and it is

certainly a radical and fundamental change in the nature

(quickly or gradually, through conquest, attrition or evo-

of society.

lution) replaced by some more efficient form of society.

141. People tend to assume that because a revolution

[25]

involves a much greater change than reform does, it is

144. Thus human nature has in the past put certain li-

more difficult to bring about than reform is. Actually, un-

mits on the development of societies. People could be pu-

der certain circumstances revolution is much easier than

shed only so far and no farther. But today this may be

reform. The reason is that a revolutionary movement can

changing, because modern technology is developing ways

inspire an intensity of commitment that a reform move-

of modifying human beings.

ment cannot inspire. A reform movement merely offers

145. Imagine a society that subjects people to condi-

to solve a particular social problem. A revolutionary mo-

tions that make them terribly unhappy, then gives them

vement offers to solve all problems at one stroke and

drugs to take away their unhappiness. Science fiction? It

create a whole new world; it provides the kind of ideal

is already happening to some extent in our own society. It

for which people will take great risks and make great sa-

is well known that the rate of clinical depression has been

crifices. For this reasons it would be much easier to over-

greatly increasing in recent decades. We believe that this

throw the whole technological system than to put effec-

is due to disruption of the power process, as explained

tive, permanent restraints on the development or appli-

in paragraphs 59-76. But even if we are wrong, the in-

cation of any one segment of technology, such as gene-

creasing rate of depression is certainly the result of SOME

tic engineering, for example. Not many people will de-

conditions that exist in today’s society. Instead of remo-

vote themselves with single-minded passion to imposing

ving the conditions that make people depressed, modern

and maintaining restraints on genetic engineering, but un-

society gives them antidepressant drugs. In effect, antide-

der suitable conditions large numbers of people may de-

pressants are a means of modifying an individual’s inter-

vote themselves passionately to a revolution against the

nal state in such a way as to enable him to tolerate social

industrial-technological system. As we noted in paragraph

conditions that he would otherwise find intolerable. (Yes,

132, reformers seeking to limit certain aspects of tech-

we know that depression is often of purely genetic origin.

nology would be working to avoid a negative outcome.

We are referring here to those cases in which environment

But revolutionaries work to gain a powerful reward —

plays the predominant role.)

fulfillment of their revolutionary vision — and therefore

146. Drugs that affect the mind are only one example

work harder and more persistently than reformers do.

of the new methods of controlling human behavior that

142. Reform is always restrained by the fear of painful

modern society is developing. Let us look at some of the

consequences if changes go too far. But once a revolutio-

other methods.

nary fever has taken hold of a society, people are willing

147. To start with, there are the techniques of sur-

to undergo unlimited hardships for the sake of their revo-

veillance. Hidden video cameras are now used in most

lution. This was clearly shown in the French and Russian

stores and in many other places, computers are used to

Revolutions. It may be that in such cases only a minority

collect and process vast amounts of information about in-

of the population is really committed to the revolution,

dividuals. Information so obtained greatly increases the

but this minority is sufficiently large and active so that it

effectiveness of physical coercion (i.e., law enforcement).

becomes the dominant force in society. We will have more

[26] Then there are the methods of propaganda, for which

to say about revolution in paragraphs 180-205.

the mass communication media provide effective vehicles.

Efflcient techniques have been developed for winning

elections, selling products, influencing public opinion. The

entertainment industry serves as an important psycho-

CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

logical tool of the system, possibly even when it is dis-

hing out large amounts of sex and violence. Entertain-

143. Since the beginning of civilization, organized so-

ment provides modern man with an essential means of es-

cieties have had to put pressures on human beings of

cape. While absorbed in television, videos, etc., he can for-

the sake of the functioning of the social organism. The

get stress, anxiety, frustration, dissatisfaction. Many primi-

kinds of pressures vary greatly from one society to ano-

tive peoples, when they don’t have work to do, are quite

ther. Some of the pressures are physical (poor diet, exces-

content to sit for hours at a time doing nothing at all, be-

sive labor, environmental pollution), some are psycholo-

cause they are at peace with themselves and their world.

gical (noise, crowding, forcing human behavior into the

But most modern people must be constantly occupied or

entertained, otherwise they get “bored,” i.e., they get fid-

behave. Alienation, low self-esteem, depression, hostility,

gety, uneasy, irritable.

rebellion; children who won’t study, youth gangs, ille-

148. Other techniques strike deeper than the foregoing.

gal drug use, rape, child abuse, other crimes, unsafe sex,

Education is no longer a simple affair of paddling a ki-

teen pregnancy, population growth, political corruption,

d’s behind when he doesn’t know his lessons and patting

race hatred, ethnic rivalry, bitter ideological conflict (e.g.,

him on the head when he does know them. It is beco-

pro-choice vs. pro-life), political extremism, terrorism, sa-

ming a scientific technique for controlling the child’s deve-

botage, anti-government groups, hate groups. All these

lopment. Sylvan Learning Centers, for example, have had

threaten the very survival of the system. The system will

great success in motivating children to study, and psycho-

therefore be FORCED to use every practical means of

logical techniques are also used with more or less success

controlling human behavior.

in many conventional schools. “Parenting” techniques that

151. The social disruption that we see today is certainly

are taught to parents are designed to make children ac-

not the result of mere chance. It can only be a result of

cept fundamental values of the system and behave in ways

the conditions of life that the system imposes on people.

that the system finds desirable. “Mental health” programs,

(We have argued that the most important of these condi-

“intervention” techniques, psychotherapy and so forth are

tions is disruption of the power process.) If the systems

ostensibly designed to benefit individuals, but in practice

succeeds in imposing sufficient control over human beha-

they usually serve as methods for inducing individuals to

vior to assure its own survival, a new watershed in hu-

think and behave as the system requires. (There is no

man history will have been passed. Whereas formerly the

contradiction here; an individual whose attitudes or beha-

limits of human endurance have imposed limits on the

vior bring him into conflict with the system is up against

development of societies (as we explained in Paragraphs

a force that is too powerful for him to conquer or escape

143, 144), industrial-technological society will be able to

from, hence he is likely to suffer from stress, frustration,

pass those limits by modifying human beings, whether by

defeat. His path will be much easier if he thinks and be-

psychological methods or biological methods or both. In

haves as the system requires. In that sense the system

the future, social systems will not be adjusted to suit the

is acting for the benefit of the individual when it brain-

needs of human beings. Instead, human being will be ad-

washes him into conformity.) Child abuse in its gross and

justed to suit the needs of the system. [27]

obvious forms is disapproved in most if not all cultures.

152. Generally speaking, technological control over hu-

Tormenting a child for a trivial reason or no reason at

man behavior will probably not be introduced with a to-

all is something that appalls almost everyone. But many

talitarian intention or even through a conscious desire

psychologists interpret the concept of abuse much more

to restrict human freedom. [28] Each new step in the

broadly. Is spanking, when used as part of a rational and

assertion of control over the human mind will be ta-

consistent system of discipline, a form of abuse? The ques-

ken as a rational response to a problem that faces so-

tion will ultimately be decided by whether or not spanking

ciety, such as curing alcoholism, reducing the crime rate

tends to produce behavior that makes a person fit in well

or inducing young people to study science and enginee-

with the existing system of society. In practice, the word

ring. In many cases there will be a humanitarian justifica-

“abuse” tends to be interpreted to include any method

tion. For example, when a psychiatrist prescribes an anti-

of child-rearing that produces behavior inconvenient for

depressant for a depressed patient, he is clearly doing that

the system. Thus, when they go beyond the prevention of

individual a favor. It would be inhumane to withhold the

obvious, senseless cruelty, programs for preventing “child

drug from someone who needs it. When Parents send their

abuse” are directed toward the control of human behavior

children to Sylvan Learning Centers to have them manipu-

on behalf of the system.

lated into becoming enthusiastic about their studies, they

149. Presumably, research will continue to increase the

do so from concern for their children’s welfare. It may be

effectiveness of psychological techniques for controlling

that some of these parents wish that one didn’t have to

human behavior. But we think it is unlikely that psycholo-

have specialized training to get a job and that their kid

gical techniques alone will be sufficient to adjust human

didn’t have to be brainwashed into becoming a computer

beings to the kind of society that technology is creating.

nerd. But what can they do? They can’t change society,

Biological methods probably will have to be used. We have

and their child may be unemployable if he doesn’t have

already mentioned the use of drugs in this connection.

certain skills. So they send him to Sylvan.

Neurology may provide other avenues for modifying the

153. Thus control over human behavior will be intro-

human mind. Genetic engineering of human beings is al-

duced not by a calculated decision of the authorities but

ready beginning to occur in the form of “gene therapy,”

through a process of social evolution (RAPID evolution,

and there is no reason to assume that such methods will

however). The process will be impossible to resist, be-

not eventually be used to modify those aspects of the body

cause each advance, considered by itself, will appear to

that affect mental functioning.

be beneficial, or at least the evil involved in making the

150. As we mentioned in paragraph 134, industrial so-

advance will appear to be beneficial, or at least the evil

ciety seems likely to be entering a period of severe stress,

involved in making the advance will seem to be less than

due in part to problems of human behavior and in part

that which would result from not making it (see para-

to economic and environmental problems. And a consi-

graph 127). Propaganda for example is used for many

derable proportion of the system’s economic and envi-

good purposes, such as discouraging child abuse or race

ronmental problems result from the way human beings

hatred. [14] Sex education is obviously useful, yet the ef-

fect of sex education (to the extent that it is successful) is

plains about the trashiness of television, but almost eve-

to take the shaping of sexual attitudes away from the fa-

ryone watches it. A few have kicked the TV habit, but it

mily and put it into the hands of the state as represented

would be a rare person who could get along today without

by the public school system.

using ANY form of mass entertainment. (Yet until quite re-

154. Suppose a biological trait is discovered that in-

cently in human histoy most people got along very nicely

creases the likelihood that a child will grow up to be a cri-

with no other entertainment than that which each local

minal, and suppose some sort of gene therapy can remove

community created for itself.) Without the entertainment

this trait. [29] Of course most parents whose children pos-

industry the system probably would not have been able to

sess the trait will have them undergo the therapy. It would

get away with putting as much stressproducing pressure

be inhumane to do otherwise, since the child would pro-

on us as it does.

bably have a miserable life if he grew up to be a criminal.

157. Assuming that industrial society survives, it is li-

But many or most primitive societies have a low crime

kely that technology will eventually acquire something ap-

rate in comparison with that of our society, even though

proaching complete control over human behavior. It has

they have neither high-tech methods of child-rearing nor

been established beyond any rational doubt that human

harsh systems of punishment. Since there is no reason to

thought and behavior have a largely biological basis. As

suppose that more modern men than primitive men have

experimenters have demonstrated, feelings such as hun-

innate predatory tendencies, the high crime rate of our

ger, pleasure, anger and fear can be turned on and off

society must be due to the pressures that modern condi-

by electrical stimulation of appropriate parts of the brain.

tions put on people, to which many cannot or will not

Memories can be destroyed by damaging parts of the brain

adjust. Thus a treatment designed to remove potential cri-

or they can be brought to the surface by electrical stimu-

minal tendencies is at least in part a way of re-engineering

lation. Hallucinations can be induced or moods changed

people so that they suit the requirements of the system.

by drugs. There may or may not be an immaterial human

155. Our society tends to regard as a “sickness” any

soul, but if there is one it clearly is less powerful that the

mode of thought or behavior that is inconvenient for the

biological mechanisms of human behavior. For if that were

system, and this is plausible because when an individual

not the case then researchers would not be able so easily

doesn’t fit into the system it causes pain to the individual

to manipulate human feelings and behavior with drugs

as well as problems for the system. Thus the manipulation

and electrical currents.

of an individual to adjust him to the system is seen as a

158. It presumably would be impractical for all people

“cure” for a “sickness” and therefore as good.

to have electrodes inserted in their heads so that they

156. In paragraph 127 we pointed out that if the use

could be controlled by the authorities. But the fact that

of a new item of technology is INITIALLY optional, it does

human thoughts and feelings are so open to biological

not necessarily REMAIN optional, because the new tech-

intervention shows that the problem of controlling hu-

nology tends to change society in such a way that it be-

man behavior is mainly a technical problem; a problem

comes difficult or impossible for an individual to func-

of neurons, hormones and complex molecules; the kind

tion without using that technology. This applies also to the

of problem that is accessible to scientific attack. Given the

technology of human behavior. In a world in which most

outstanding record of our society in solving technical pro-

children are put through a program to make them enthu-

blems, it is overwhelmingly probable that great advances

siastic about studying, a parent will almost be forced to

will be made in the control of human behavior.

put his kid through such a program, because if he does

159. Will public resistance prevent the introduction

not, then the kid will grow up to be, comparatively spea-

of technological control of human behavior? It certainly

king, an ignoramus and therefore unemployable. Or sup-

would if an attempt were made to introduce such control

all at once. But since technological control will be intro-

pose a biological treatment is discovered that, without un-

duced through a long sequence of small advances, there

desirable side-effects, will greatly reduce the psychologi-

will be no rational and effective public resistance. (See

cal stress from which so many people suffer in our society.

paragraphs 127, 132, 153.)

If large numbers of people choose to undergo the treat-

160. To those who think that all this sounds like science

ment, then the general level of stress in society will be re-

fiction, we point out that yesterday’s science fiction is to-

duced, so that it will be possible for the system to increase

day’s fact. The Industrial Revolution has radically altered

the stress-producing pressures. This will lead more people

to undergo the treatment; and so forth, so that eventually

man’s environment and way of life, and it is only to be

the pressures may become so heavy that few people will

expected that as technology is increasingly applied to the

be able to survive without undergoing the stress-reducing

human body and mind, man himself will be altered as ra-

treatment. In fact, something like this seems to have hap-

dically as his environment and way of life have been.

pened already with one of our society’s most important

psychological tools for enabling people to reduce (or at

least temporarily escape from) stress, namely, mass en-

HUMAN RACE AT A CROSSROADS

tertainment (see paragraph 147). Our use of mass enter-

tainment is “optional”: No law requires us to watch tele-

161. But we have gotten ahead of our story. It is one

vision, listen to the radio, read magazines. Yet mass en-

thing to develop in the laboratory a series of psychologi-

tertainment is a means of escape and stress-reduction on

cal or biological techniques for manipulating human beha-

which most of us have become dependent. Everyone com-

vior and quite another to integrate these techniques into a

functioning social system. The latter problem is the more

the system will increase its control over people and nature

difficult of the two. For example, while the techniques of

more rapidly, because it will no longer be hampered by dif-

educational psychology doubtless work quite well in the

ficulties of the kind that it is currently experiencing. Survi-

“lab schools” where they are developed, it is not neces-

val is not the principal motive for extending control. As we

sarily easy to apply them effectively throughout our edu-

explained in paragraphs 87-90, technicians and scientists

cational system. We all know what many of our schools

carry on their work largely as a surrogate activity; that is,

are like. The teachers are too busy taking knives and guns

they satisfy their need for power by solving technical pro-

away from the kids to subject them to the latest techniques

blems. They will continue to do this with unabated enthu-

for making them into computer nerds. Thus, in spite of

siasm, and among the most interesting and challenging

all its technical advances relating to human behavior, the

problems for them to solve will be those of understanding

system to date has not been impressively successful in

the human body and mind and intervening in their deve-

controlling human beings. The people whose behavior is

lopment. For the “good of humanity,” of course.

fairly well under the control of the system are those of the

165. But suppose on the other hand that the stresses of

type that might be called “bourgeois.” But there are gro-

the coming decades prove to be too much for the system. If

wing numbers of people who in one way or another are

the system breaks down there may be a period of chaos, a

rebels against the system: welfare leaches, youth gangs,

“time of troubles” such as those that history has recorded

cultists, satanists, nazis, radical environmentalists, militia-

at various epochs in the past. It is impossible to predict

men, etc.

what would emerge from such a time of troubles, but at

162. The system is currently engaged in a desperate

any rate the human race would be given a new chance.

struggle to overcome certain problems that threaten its

The greatest danger is that industrial society may begin

survival, among which the problems of human behavior

to reconstitute itself within the first few years after the

are the most important. If the system succeeds in acqui-

breakdown. Certainly there will be many people (power-

ring sufficient control over human behavior quickly en-

hungry types espeeially) who will be anxious to get the

ough, it will probably survive. Otherwise it will break

factories running again.

down. We think the issue will most likely be resolved wi-

166. Therefore two tasks confront those who hate the

thin the next several decades, say 40 to 100 years.

servitude to which the industrial system is reducing the

163. Suppose the system survives the crisis of the next

human race. First, we must work to heighten the social

several decades. By that time it will have to have solved,

stresses within the system so as to increase the likelihood

or at least brought under control, the principal problems

that it will break down or be weakened sufficiently so

that confront it, in particular that of “socializing” human

that a revolution against it becomes possible. Second, it is

beings; that is, making people sufficiently docile so that

necessary to develop and propagate an ideology that op-

heir behavior no longer threatens the system. That being

poses technology and the industrial system. Such an ideo-

accomplished, it does not appear that there would be any

logy can become the basis for a revolution against indus-

further obstacle to the development of technology, and it

trial society if and when the system becomes sufficiently

would presumably advance toward its logical conclusion,

weakened. And such an ideology will help to assure that,

which is complete control over everything on Earth, in-

if and when industrial society breaks down, its remnants

cluding human beings and all other important organisms.

will be smashed beyond repair, so that the system cannot

The system may become a unitary, monolithic organiza-

be reconstituted. The factories should be destroyed, tech-

tion, or it may be more or less fragmented and consist of a

nical books burned, etc.

number of organizations coexisting in a relationship that

includes elements of both cooperation and competition,

just as today the government, the corporations and other

HUMAN SUFFERING

large organizations both cooperate and compete with one

another. Human freedom mostly will have vanished, be-

cause individuals and small groups will be impotent vis-

167. The industrial system will not break down purely

a-vis large organizations armed with supertechnology and

as a result of revolutionary action. It will not be vulne-

an arsenal of advanced psychological and biological tools

rable to revolutionary attack unless its own internal pro-

for manipulating human beings, besides instruments of

blems of development lead it into very serious difficulties.

surveillance and physical coercion. Only a small number

So if the system breaks down it will do so either sponta-

of people will have any real power, and even these proba-

neously, or through a process that is in part spontaneous

bly will have only very limited freedom, because their be-

but helped along by revolutionaries. If the breakdown is

havior too will be regulated; just as today our politicians

sudden, many people will die, since the world’s popula-

and corporation executives can retain their positions of

tion has become so overblown that it cannot even feed

power only as long as their behavior remains within cer-

itself any longer without advanced technology. Even if the

tain fairly narrow limits.

breakdown is gradual enough so that reduction of the po-

164. Don’t imagine that the systems will stop develo-

pulation can occur more through lowering of the birth rate

ping further techniques for controlling human beings and

than through elevation of the death rate, the process of de-

nature once the crisis of the next few decades is over and

industrialization probably will be very chaotic and involve

increasing control is no longer necessary for the system’s

much suffering. It is naive to think it likely that technology

survival. On the contrary, once the hard times are over

can be phased out in a smoothly managed, orderly way,

especially since the technophiles will fight stubbornly at

indefinitely, and it is well known that crowding leads to in-

every step. Is it therefore cruel to work for the breakdown

creased stress and aggression. This is merely one example

of the system? Maybe, but maybe not. In the first place,

of the PREDICTABLE problems that will arise. We empha-

revolutionaries will not be able to break the system down

size that, as past experience has shown, technical progress

unless it is already in enough trouble so that there would

will lead to other new problems that CANNOT be predic-

be a good chance of its eventually breaking down by itself

ted in advance (paragraph 103). In fact, ever since the

anyway; and the bigger the system grows, the more di-

Industrial Revolution, technology has been creating new

sastrous the consequences of its breakdown will be; so it

problems for society far more rapidly than it has been sol-

may be that revolutionaries, by hastening the onset of the

ving old ones. Thus it will take a long and difficult period

breakdown, will be reducing the extent of the disaster.

of trial and error for the technophiles to work the bugs out

168. In the second place, one has to balance struggle

of their Brave New World (if they every do). In the mean-

and death against the loss of freedom and dignity. To

time there will be great suffering. So it is not at all clear

many of us, freedom and dignity are more important than

that the survival of industrial society would involve less

a long life or avoidance of physical pain. Besides, we all

suffering than the breakdown of that society would. Tech-

have to die some time, and it may be better to die fighting

nology has gotten the human race into a fix from which

for survival, or for a cause, than to live a long but empty

there is not likely to be any easy escape.

and purposeless life.

169. In the third place, it is not at all certain that sur-

vival of the system will lead to less suffering than break-

THE FUTURE

down of the system would. The system has already cau-

sed, and is continuing to cause, immense suffering all

171. But suppose now that industrial society does sur-

over the world. Ancient cultures, that for hundreds of

vive the next several decades and that the bugs do even-

years gave people a satisfactory relationship with each

tually get worked out of the system, so that it functions

other and with their environment, have been shattered

smoothly. What kind of system will it be? We will consider

by contact with industrial society, and the result has been

several possibilities.

a whole catalogue of economic, environmental, social and

172. First let us postulate that the computer scientists

psychological problems. One of the effects of the intrusion

succeed in developing intelligent machines that can do all

of industrial society has been that over much of the world

things better than human beings can do them. In that case

traditional controls on population have been thrown out

presumably all work will be done by vast, highly orga-

of balance. Hence the population explosion, with all that

nized systems of machines and no human effort will be

that implies. Then there is the psychological suffering that

necessary. Either of two cases might occur. The machines

is widespread throughout the supposedly fortunate coun-

might be permitted to make all of their own decisions wi-

tries of the West (see paragraphs 44, 45). No one knows

thout human oversight, or else human control over the

what will happen as a result of ozone depletion, the green-

machines might be retained.

house effect and other environmental problems that can-

173. If the machines are permitted to make all their

not yet be foreseen. And, as nuclear proliferation has

own decisions, we can’t make any conjectures as to the

shown, new technology cannot be kept out of the hands

results, because it is impossible to guess how such ma-

of dictators and irresponsible Third World nations. Would

chines might behave. We only point out that the fate of

you like to speculate about what Iraq or North Korea will

the human race would be at the mercy of the machines.

do with genetic engineering?

It might be argued that the human race would never be

170. “Oh!” say the technophiles, “Science is going to

foolish enough to hand over all power to the machines.

fix all that! We will conquer famine, eliminate psychologi-

But we are suggesting neither that the human race would

cal suffering, make everybody healthy and happy!” Yeah,

voluntarily turn power over to the machines nor that the

sure. That’s what they said 200 years ago. The Indus-

machines would willfully seize power. What we do sug-

trial Revolution was supposed to eliminate poverty, make

gest is that the human race might easily permit itself to

everybody happy, etc. The actual result has been quite

drift into a position of such dependence on the machines

different. The technophiles are hopelessly naive (or self-

that it would have no practical choice but to accept all of

deceiving) in their understanding of social problems. They

the machines’ decisions. As society and the problems that

are unaware of (or choose to ignore) the fact that when

face it become more and more complex and as machines

large changes, even seemingly beneficial ones, are intro-

become more and more intelligent, people will let ma-

duced into a society, they lead to a long sequence of other

chines make more and more of their decisions for them,

changes, most of which are impossible to predict (para-

simply because machine-made decisions will bring better

graph 103). The result is disruption of the society. So it

results than man-made ones. Eventually a stage may be

is very probable that in their attempts to end poverty and

reached at which the decisions necessary to keep the sys-

disease, engineer docile, happy personalities and so forth,

tem running will be so complex that human beings will be

the technophiles will create social systems that are ter-

incapable of making them intelligently. At that stage the

ribly troubled, even more so than the present one. For

machines will be in effective control. People won’t be able

example, the scientists boast that they will end famine

to just turn the machine off, because they will be so de-

by creating new, genetically engineered food plants. But

pendent on them that turning them off would amount to

this will allow the human population to keep expanding

suicide.

174. On the other hand it is possible that human control

only by pushing large numbers of other people out of the

over the machines may be retained. In that case the ave-

way and depriving them of THEIR opportunity for power.

rage man may have control over certain private machines

176. One can envision scenarios that incorporate as-

of his own, such as his car or his personal computer,

pects of more than one of the possibilities that we have

but control over large systems of machines will be in the

just discussed. For instance, it may be that machines will

hands of a tiny elite — just as it is today, but with two dif-

take over most of the work that is of real, practical impor-

ferences. Due to improved techniques the elite will have

tance, but that human beings will be kept busy by being

greater control over the masses; and because human work

given relatively unimportant work. It has been sugges-

will no longer be necessary the masses will be superfluous,

ted, for example, that a great development of the service

a useless burden on the system. If the elite is ruthless

industries might provide work for human beings. Thus

they may simply decide to exterminate the mass of hu-

people would spent their time shining each other’s shoes,

manity. If they are humane they may use propaganda or

driving each other around in taxicabs, making handicrafts

other psychological or biological techniques to reduce the

for one another, waiting on each other’s tables, etc. This

birth rate until the mass of humanity becomes extinct, lea-

seems to us a thoroughly contemptible way for the human

ving the world to the elite. Or, if the elite consists of soft-

race to end up, and we doubt that many people would find

hearted liberals, they may decide to play the role of good

fulfilling lives in such pointless busy-work. They would

shepherds to the rest of the human race. They will see

seek other, dangerous outlets (drugs, crime, “cults,” hate

to it that everyone’s physical needs are satisfied, that all

groups) unless they were biologically or psychologically

children are raised under psychologically hygienic condi-

engineered to adapt them to such a way of life.

tions, that everyone has a wholesome hobby to keep him

177. Needless to say, the scenarios outlined above do

busy, and that anyone who may become dissatisfied un-

not exhaust all the possibilities. They only indicate the

dergoes “treatment” to cure his “problem.” Of course, life

kinds of outcomes that seem to us most likely. But we can

will be so purposeless that people will have to be biologi-

envision no plausible scenarios that are any more pala-

cally or psychologically engineered either to remove their

table than the ones we’ve just described. It is overwhel-

need for the power process or to make them “sublimate”

mingly probable that if the industrial-technological system

their drive for power into some harmless hobby. These en-

survives the next 40 to 100 years, it will by that time have

gineered human beings may be happy in such a society,

developed certain general characteristics: Individuals (at

but they most certainly will not be free. They will have

least those of the “bourgeois” type, who are integrated

been reduced to the status of domestic animals.

into the system and make it run, and who therefore have

175. But suppose now that the computer scientists do

all the power) will be more dependent than ever on large

not succeed in developing artificial intelligence, so that

organizations; they will be more “socialized” than ever

human work remains necessary. Even so, machines will

and their physical and mental qualities to a significant

take care of more and more of the simpler tasks so that

extent (possibly to a very great extent) will be those that

there will be an increasing surplus of human workers at

are engineered into them rather than being the results of

the lower levels of ability. (We see this happening already.

chance (or of God’s will, or whatever); and whatever may

There are many people who find it difficult or impos-

be left of wild nature will be reduced to remnants preser-

sible to get work, because for intellectual or psychologi-

ved for scientific study and kept under the supervision and

cal reasons they cannot acquire the level of training ne-

management of scientists (hence it will no longer be truly

cessary to make themselves useful in the present system.)

wild). In the long run (say a few centuries from now) it

On those who are employed, ever-increasing demands will

is likely that neither the human race nor any other impor-

be placed: They will need more and more training, more

tant organisms will exist as we know them today, because

and more ability, and will have to be ever more reliable,

once you start modifying organisms through genetic engi-

conforming and docile, because they will be more and

neering there is no reason to stop at any particular point,

more like cells of a giant organism. Their tasks will be

so that the modifications will probably continue until man

increasingly specialized, so that their work will be, in a

and other organisms have been utterly transformed.

sense, out of touch with the real world, being concentra-

178. Whatever else may be the case, it is certain that

ted on one tiny slice of reality. The system will have to use

technology is creating for human beings a new physical

any means that it can, whether psychological or biological,

and social environment radically different from the spec-

to engineer people to be docile, to have the abilities that

trum of environments to which natural selection has adap-

the system requires and to “sublimate” their drive for po-

ted the human race physically and psychologically. If man

wer into some specialized task. But the statement that the

is not adjusted to this new environment by being artifi-

people of such a society will have to be docile may require

cially re-engineered, then he will be adapted to it through

qualification. The society may find competitiveness useful,

a long and painful process of natural selection. The former

provided that ways are found of directing competitiveness

is far more likely than the latter.

into channels that serve the needs of the system. We can

179. It would be better to dump the whole stinking sys-

imagine a future society in which there is endless competi-

tem and take the consequences.

tion for positions of prestige and power. But no more than

a very few people will ever reach the top, where the only

real power is (see end of paragraph 163). Very repellent is

a society in which a person can satisfy his need for power

STRATEGY

society, and for countless centuries many different kinds

of human societies coexisted with nature without doing

it an excessive amount of damage. Only with the Indus-

180. The technophiles are taking us all on an utterly

trial Revolution did the effect of human society on nature

reckless ride into the unknown. Many people understand

become really devastating. To relieve the pressure on na-

something of what technological progress is doing to us

yet take a passive attitude toward it because they think

ture it is not necessary to create a special kind of social

it is inevitable. But we (FC) don’t think it is inevitable.

system, it is only necessary to get rid of industrial society.

We think it can be stopped, and we will give here some

Granted, this will not solve all problems. Industrial society

indications of how to go about stopping it.

has already done tremendous damage to nature and it

181. As we stated in paragraph 166, the two main tasks

will take a very long time for the scars to heal. Besides,

for the present are to promote social stress and instabi-

even preindustrial societies can do significant damage to

lity in industrial society and to develop and propagate an

nature. Nevertheless, getting rid of industrial society will

ideology that opposes technology and the industrial sys-

accomplish a great deal. It will relieve the worst of the

tem. When the system becomes sufficiently stressed and

pressure on nature so that the scars can begin to heal.

unstable, a revolution against technology may be possible.

It will remove the capacity of organized society to keep

The pattern would be similar to that of the French and

increasing its control over nature (including human na-

Russian Revolutions. French society and Russian society,

ture). Whatever kind of society may exist after the demise

for several decades prior to their respective revolutions,

of the industrial system, it is certain that most people will

showed increasing signs of stress and weakness. Meanw-

live close to nature, because in the absence of advanced

hile, ideologies were being developed that offered a new

technology there is no other way that people CAN live.

To feed themselves they must be peasants or herdsmen or

world view that was quite different from the old one. In

fishermen or hunters, etc. And, generally speaking, local

the Russian case, revolutionaries were actively working to

autonomy should tend to increase, because lack of advan-

undermine the old order. Then, when the old system was

ced technology and rapid communications will limit the

put under sufficient additional stress (by financial crisis in

capacity of governments or other large organizations to

France, by military defeat in Russia) it was swept away by

control local communities.

revolution. What we propose is something along the same

lines.

185. As for the negative consequences of eliminating

182. It will be objected that the French and Russian Re-

industrial society — well, you can’t eat your cake and have

volutions were failures. But most revolutions have two

it too. To gain one thing you have to sacrifice another.

goals. One is to destroy an old form of society and the

186. Most people hate psychological conflict. For this

other is to set up the new form of society envisioned by

reason they avoid doing any serious thinking about diffi-

the revolutionaries. The French and Russian revolutiona-

cult social issues, and they like to have such issues pre-

ries failed (fortunately!) to create the new kind of society

sented to them in simple, black-and-white terms: THIS is

of which they dreamed, but they were quite successful in

all good and THAT is all bad. The revolutionary ideology

destroying the old society. We have no illusions about the

should therefore be developed on two levels.

feasibility of creating a new, ideal form of society. Our goal

187. On the more sophisticated level the ideology

is only to destroy the existing form of society.

should address itself to people who are intelligent,

183. But an ideology, in order to gain enthusiastic sup-

thoughtful and rational. The object should be to create

port, must have a positive ideal as well as a negative one;

a core of people who will be opposed to the industrial

it must be FOR something as well as AGAINST some-

system on a rational, thought-out basis, with full appre-

thing. The positive ideal that we propose is Nature. That

ciation of the problems and ambiguities involved, and of

is, WILD nature: those aspects of the functioning of the

the price that has to be paid for getting rid of the system.

Earth and its living things that are independent of human

It is particularly important to attract people of this type,

management and free of human interference and control.

as they are capable people and will be instrumental in

And with wild nature we include human nature, by which

influencing others. These people should be addressed on

we mean those aspects of the functioning of the human

as rational a level as possible. Facts should never inten-

individual that are not subject to regulation by organized

tionally be distorted and intemperate language should be

society but are products of chance, or free will, or God

avoided. This does not mean that no appeal can be made

(depending on your religious or philosophical opinions).

to the emotions, but in making such appeal care should

184. Nature makes a perfect counter-ideal to techno-

be taken to avoid misrepresenting the truth or doing any-

logy for several reasons. Nature (that which is outside the

thing else that would destroy the intellectual respectabi-

power of the system) is the opposite of technology (which

lity of the ideology.

seeks to expand indefinitely the power of the system).

188. On a second level, the ideology should be propa-

Most people will agree that nature is beautiful; certainly it

gated in a simplified form that will enable the unthin-

has tremendous popular appeal. The radical environmen-

king majority to see the conflict of technology vs. nature

talists ALREADY hold an ideology that exalts nature and

in unambiguous terms. But even on this second level the

opposes technology. [30] It is not necessary for the sake

ideology should not be expressed in language that is so

of nature to set up some chimerical utopia or any new

cheap, intemperate or irrational that it alienates people of

kind of social order. Nature takes care of itself: It was a

the thoughfful and rational type. Cheap, intemperate pro-

spontaneous creation that existed long before any human

paganda sometimes achieves impressive short-term gains,

but it will be more advantageous in the long run to keep

Generally speaking, one should encourage only those so-

the loyalty of a small number of intelligently committed

cial conflicts that can be fitted into the framework of the

people than to arouse the passions of an unthinking, fi-

conflicts of power-elite vs. ordinary people, technology vs

ckle mob who will change their attitude as soon as so-

nature.

meone comes along with a better propaganda gimmick.

192. But the way to discourage ethnic conflict is NOT

However, propaganda of the rabble-rousing type may be

through militant advocacy of minority rights (see para-

necessary when the system is nearing the point of collapse

graphs 21, 29). Instead, the revolutionaries should em-

and there is a final struggle between rival ideologies to de-

phasize that although minorities do suffer more or less

termine which will become dominant when the old world-

disadvantage, this disadvantage is of peripheral signifi-

view goes under.

cance. Our real enemy is the industrial- technological sys-

189. Prior to that final struggle, the revolutionaries

tem, and in the struggle against the system, ethnic distinc-

should not expect to have a majority of people on their

tions are of no importance.

side. History is made by active, determined minorities, not

193. The kind of revolution we have in mind will not

by the majority, which seldom has a clear and consistent

necessarily involve an armed uprising against any govern-

idea of what it really wants. Until the time comes for the

ment. It may or may not involve physical violence, but it

final push toward revolution [31], the task of revolutiona-

will not be a POLITICAL revolution. Its focus will be on

ries will be less to win the shallow support of the majority

technology and economics, not politics. [32]

than to build a small core of deeply committed people. As

194. Probably the revolutionaries should even AVOID

for the majority, it will be enough to make them aware of

assuming political power, whether by legal or illegal

the existence of the new ideology and remind them of it

means, until the industrial system is stressed to the dan-

frequently; though of course it will be desirable to get ma-

ger point and has proved itself to be a failure in the eyes

jority support to the extent that this can be done without

of most people. Suppose for example that some “green”

weakening the core of seriously committed people.

party should win control of the United States Congress

190. Any kind of social conflict helps to destabi-

in an election. In order to avoid betraying or watering

lize the system, but one should be careful about what

down their own ideology they would have to take vigrous

kind of conflict one encourages. The line of conflict

measures to turn economic growth into economic shrin-

should be drawn between the mass of the people and

kage. To the average man the results would appear di-

the power-holding elite of industrial society (politicians,

sastrous: There would be massive unemployment, shor-

scientists, upper-level business executives, government of-

tages of commodities, etc. Even if the grosser ill effects

ficials, etc.). It should NOT be drawn between the revo-

could be avoided through superhumanly skillful manage-

lutionaries and the mass of the people. For example, it

ment, still people would have to begin giving up the luxu-

would be bad strategy for the revolutionaries to condemn

ries to which they have become addicted. Dissatisfaction

Americans for their habits of consumption. Instead, the

would grow, the “green” party would be voted out o,f off-

average American should be portrayed as a victim of the

fice and the revolutionaries would have suffered a severe

advertising and marketing industry, which has suckered

setback. For this reason the revolutionaries should not try

him into buying a lot of junk that he doesn’t need and

to acquire political power until the system has gotten it-

that is very poor compensation for his lost freedom. Ei-

self into such a mess that any hardships will be seen as

ther approach is consistent with the facts. It is merely a

resulting from the failures of the industrial system itself

matter of attitude whether you blame the advertising in-

and not from the policies of the revolutionaries. The revo-

dustry for manipulating the public or blame the public for

lution against technology will probably have to be a revo-

allowing itself to be manipulated. As a matter of strategy

lution by outsiders, a revolution from below and not from

one should generally avoid blaming the public.

above.

191. One should think twice before encouraging any

195. The revolution must be international and world-

other social conflict than that between the power-holding

wide. It cannot be carried out on a nation-by-nation ba-

elite (which wields technology) and the general public

sis. Whenever it is suggested that the United States, for

(over which technology exerts its power). For one thing,

example, should cut back on technological progress or

other conflicts tend to distract attention from the impor-

economic growth, people get hysterical and start screa-

tant conflicts (between power-elite and ordinary people,

ming that if we fall behind in technology the Japanese

between technology and nature); for another thing, other

will get ahead of us. Holy robots! The world will fly off its

conflicts may actually tend to encourage technologization,

orbit if the Japanese ever sell more cars than we do! (Na-

because each side in such a conflict wants to use techno-

tionalism is a great promoter of technology.) More rea-

logical power to gain advantages over its adversary. This

sonably, it is argued that if the relatively democratic na-

is clearly seen in rivalries between nations. It also appears

tions of the world fall behind in technology while nasty,

in ethnic conflicts within nations. For example, in America

dictatorial nations like China, Vietnam and North Korea

many black leaders are anxious to gain power for African

continue to progress, eventually the dictators may come

Americans by placing back individuals in the technologi-

to dominate the world. That is why the industrial system

cal power-elite. They want there to be many black go-

should be attacked in all nations simultaneously, to the

vernment officials, scientists, corporation executives and

extent that this may be possible. True, there is no assu-

so forth. In this way they are helping to absorb the Afri-

rance that the industrial system can be destroyed at ap-

can American subculture into the technological system.

proximately the same time all over the world, and it is

even conceivable that the attempt to overthrow the sys-

wrecked, the destruction of that system must be the re-

tem could lead instead to the domination of the system

volutionaries’ ONLY goal. Other goals would distract at-

by dictators. That is a risk that has to be taken. And it is

tention and energy from the main goal. More importantly

worth taking, since the difference between a “democra-

if the revolutionaries permit themselves to have any other

tic” industrial system and one controlled by dictators is

goal than the destruction of technology, they will be temp-

small compared with the difference between an industrial

ted to use technology as a tool for reaching that other

system and a non-industrial one. [33] It might even be

goal. If they give in to that temptation, they will fall right

argued that an industrial system controlled by dictators

back into the technological trap, because modern techno-

would be preferable, because dictator-controlled systems

logy is a unified, tightly organized system, so that, in or-

usually have proved ineffficient, hence they are presuma-

der to retain SOME technology, one finds oneself obliged

bly more likely to break down. Look at Cuba.

to retain MOST technology, hence one ends up sacrificing

196. Revolutionaries might consider favoring measures

only token amounts of technology.

that tend to bind the world economy into a unified whole.

201. Suppose for example that the revolutionaries took

Free trade agreements like NAFTA and GATT are probably

“social justice” as a goal. Human nature being what it

harmful to the environment in the short run, but in the

is, social justice would not come about spontaneously;

long run they may perhaps be advantageous because they

it would have to be enforced. In order to enforce it the

foster economic interdependence between nations. It will

revolutionaries would have to retain central organization

be easier to destroy the industrial system on a worldwide

and control. For that they would need rapid long-distance

basis if the world economy is so unified that its breakdown

transportation and communication, and therefore all the

in any one major nation will lead to its breakdown in all

technology needed to support the transportation and com-

industrialized nations.

munication systems. To feed and clothe poor people they

197. Some people take the line that modern man has

would have to use agricultural and manufacturing tech-

too much power, too much control over nature; they argue

nology. And so forth. So that the attempt to insure social

for a more passive attitude on the part of the human

justice would force them to retain most parts of the tech-

race. At best these people are expressing themselves un-

nological system. Not that we have anything against social

clearly, because they fail to distinguish between power

justice, but it must not be allowed to interfere with the ef-

for LARGE ORGANIZATIONS and power for INDIVIDUALS

fort to get rid of the technological system.

and SMALL GROUPS. It is a mistake to argue for power-

202. It would be hopeless for revolutionaries to try to at-

lessness and passivity, because people NEED power. Mo-

tack the system without using SOME modern technology.

dern man as a collective entity — that is, the industrial

If nothing else they must use the communications media

system — has immense power over nature, and we (FC)

to spread their message. But they should use modern tech-

regard this as evil. But modern INDIVIDUALS and SMALL

nology for only ONE purpose: to attack the technological

GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS have far less power than pri-

system.

mitive man ever did. Generally speaking, the vast power

203. Imagine an alcoholic sitting with a barrel of wine

of “modern man” over nature is exercised not by indivi-

in front of him. Suppose he starts saying to himself, “Wine

duals or small groups but by large organizations. To the

isn’t bad for you if used in moderation. Why, they say

extent that the average modern INDIVIDUAL can wield

small amounts of wine are even good for you! It won’t

the power of technology, he is permitted to do so only

do me any harm if I take just one little drink

” Well you

within narrow limits and only under the supervision and

know what is going to happen. Never forget that the hu-

control of the system. (You need a license for everything

man race with technology is just like an alcoholic with a

and with the license come rules and regulations.) The in-

barrel of wine.

dividual has only those technological powers with which

204. Revolutionaries should have as many children as

the system chooses to provide him. His PERSONAL power

they can. There is strong scientific evidence that social at-

over nature is slight.

titudes are to a significant extent inherited. No one sug-

198. Primitive INDIVIDUALS and SMALL GROUPS ac-

gests that a social attitude is a direct outcome of a per-

tually had considerable power over nature; or maybe it

son’s genetic constitution, but it appears that persona-

would be better to say power WITHIN nature. When pri-

lity traits are partly inherited and that certain persona-

mitive man needed food he knew how to find and prepare

lity traits tend, within the context of our society, to make

edible roots, how to track game and take it with home-

a person more likely to hold this or that social attitude.

made weapons. He knew how to protect himself from heat

Objections to these findings have been raised, but the ob-

cold, rain, dangerous animals, etc. But primitive man did

jections are feeble and seem to be ideologically motiva-

relatively little damage to nature because the COLLEC-

ted. In any event, no one denies that children tend on the

TIVE power of primitive society was negligible compared

average to hold social attitudes similar to those of their

to the COLLECTIVE power of industrial society.

parents. From our point of view it doesn’t matter all that

199. Instead of arguing for powerlessness and passi-

much whether the attitudes are passed on genetically or

vity, one should argue that the power of the INDUSTRIAL

through childhood training. In either case they ARE pas-

SYSTEM should be broken, and that this will greatly IN-

sed on.

CREASE the power and freedom of INDIVIDUALS and

205. The trouble is that many of the people who are

SMALL GROUPS.

inclined to rebel against the industrial system are also

200. Until the industrial system has been thoroughly

concerned about the population problems, hence they are

apt to have few or no children. In this way they may be

craftsmen to build a refrigerator. If by some miracle they

handing the world over to the sort of people who sup-

did succeed in building one it would be useless to them

port or at least accept the industrial system. To ensure

without a reliable source of electric power. So they would

the strength of the next generation of revolutionaries the

have to dam a stream and build a generator. Generators

present generation should reproduce itself abundantly. In

require large amounts of copper wire. Imagine trying to

doing so they will be worsening the population problem

make that wire without modern machinery. And where

only slightly. And the important problem is to get rid of

would they get a gas suitable for refrigeration? It would

the industrial system, because once the industrial system

be much easier to build an icehouse or preserve food by

is gone the world’s population necessarily will decrease

drying or picking, as was done before the invention of the

(see paragraph 167); whereas, if the industrial system

refrigerator.

survives, it will continue developing new techniques of

210. So it is clear that if the industrial system were once

food production that may enable the world’s population

thoroughly broken down, refrigeration technology would

to keep increasing almost indefinitely.

quickly be lost. The same is true of other organization-

206. With regard to revolutionary strategy, the only

dependent technology. And once this technology had been

points on which we absolutely insist are that the single

lost for a generation or so it would take centuries to re-

overriding goal must be the elimination of modern tech-

build it, just as it took centuries to build it the first time

nology, and that no other goal can be allowed to compete

around. Surviving technical books would be few and scat-

with this one. For the rest, revolutionaries should take an

tered. An industrial society, if built from scratch without

empirical approach. If experience indicates that some of

outside help, can only be built in a series of stages: You

the recommendations made in the foregoing paragraphs

need tools to make tools to make tools to make tools...

are not going to give good results, then those recommen-

A long process of economic development and progress in

dations should be discarded.

social organization is required. And, even in the absence

of an ideology opposed to technology, there is no reason

to believe that anyone would be interested in rebuilding

industrial society. The enthusiasm for “progress” is a phe-

TWO KINDS OF TECHNOLOGY

nomenon peculiar to the modern form of society, and it

seems not to have existed prior to the 17th century or the-

207. An argument likely to be raised against our pro-

reabouts.

posed revolution is that it is bound to fail, because (it is

211. In the late Middle Ages there were four main ci-

claimed) throughout history technology has always pro-

vilizations that were about equally “advanced”: Europe,

gressed, never regressed, hence technological regression

the Islamic world, India, and the Far East (China, Japan,

is impossible. But this claim is false.

Korea). Three of those civilizations remained more or less

208. We distinguish between two kinds of technology,

stable, and only Europe became dynamic. No one knows

which we will call smallscale technology and organiza-

why Europe became dynamic at that time; historians have

tiondependent technology. Small-scale technology is tech-

their theories but these are only speculation. At any rate,

nology that can be used by small-scale communities wi-

it is clear that rapid development toward a technological

thout outside assistance. Organization-dependent tech-

form of society occurs only under special conditions. So

nology is technology that depends on large-scale social

there is no reason to assume that a long-lasting technolo-

organization. We are aware of no significant cases of

gical regression cannot be brought about.

regression in small-scale technology. But organization-

212. Would society EVENTUALLY develop again toward

dependent technology DOES regress when the social or-

an industrial-technological form? Maybe, but there is no

use in worrying about it, since we can’t predict or control

ganization on which it depends breaks down. Example:

events 500 or 1,000 years in the future. Those problems

When the Roman Empire fell apart the Romans’ small-

must be dealt with by the people who will live at that

scale technology survived because any clever village

time.

craftsman could build, for instance, a water wheel, any

skilled smith could make steel by Roman methods, and so

forth. But the Romans’ organization- dependent techno-

logy DID regress. Their aqueducts fell into disrepair and

THE DANGER OF LEFTISM

were never rebuilt. Their techniques of road construction

were lost. The Roman system of urban sanitation was for-

gotten, so that not until rather recent times did the sani-

213. Because of their need for rebellion and for mem-

tation of European cities equal that of Ancient Rome.

bership in a movement, leftists or persons of similar psy-

209. The reason why technology has seemed always to

chological type often are unattracted to a rebellious or

progress is that, until perhaps a century or two before the

activist movement whose goals and membership are not

Industrial Revolution, most technology was small-scale

initially leftist. The resulting influx of leftish types can ea-

technology. But most of the technology developed since

sily turn a non-leftist movement into a leftist one, so that

the Industrial Revolution is organization-dependent tech-

leftist goals replace or distort the original goals of the mo-

nology. Take the refrigerator for example. Without factory-

vement.

made parts or the facilities of a postindustrial machine

214. To avoid this, a movement that exalts nature

shop it would be virtually impossible for a handful of local

and opposes technology must take a resolutely anti-leftist

stance and must avoid all collaboration with leftists. Lef-

psychological role much like that which religion plays for

tism is in the long run inconsistent with wild nature, with

some people. The leftist NEEDS to believe in leftism; it

human freedom and with the elimination of modern tech-

plays a vital role in his psychological economy. His beliefs

nology. Leftism is collectivist; it seeks to bind together the

are not easily modified by logic or facts. He has a deep

entire world (both nature and the human race) into a uni-

conviction that leftism is morally Right with a capital R,

fied whole. But this implies management of nature and

and that he has not only a right but a duty to impose lef-

of human life by organized society, and it requires advan-

tist morality on everyone. (However, many of the people

ced technology. You can’t have a united world without ra-

we are referring to as “leftists” do not think of themselves

pid transportation and communication, you can’t make all

as leftists and would not describe their system of beliefs as

people love one another without sophisticated psychologi-

leftism. We use the term “leftism” because we don’t know

cal techniques, you can’t have a “planned society” without

of any better words to designate the spectrum of related

the necessary technological base. Above all, leftism is dri-

creeds that includes the feminist, gay rights, political cor-

ven by the need for power, and the leftist seeks power

rectness, etc., movements, and because these movements

on a collective basis, through identification with a mass

have a strong affinity with the old left. See paragraphs

movement or an organization. Leftism is unlikely ever to

227-230.)

give up technology, because technology is too valuable a

219. Leftism is a totalitarian force. Wherever leftism is

source of collective power.

in a position of power it tends to invade every private cor-

215. The anarchist [34] too seeks power, but he seeks

ner and force every thought into a leftist mold. In part

it on an individual or small-group basis; he wants indivi-

this is because of the quasi-religious character of leftism:

duals and small groups to be able to control the circum-

everything contrary to leftist beliefs represents Sin. More

stances of their own lives. He opposes technology because

importantly, leftism is a totalitarian force because of the

it makes small groups dependent on large organizations.

leftists’ drive for power. The leftist seeks to satisfy his need

216. Some leftists may seem to oppose technology, but

for power through identification with a social movement

they will oppose it only so long as they are outsiders and

and he tries to go through the power process by helping

the technological system is controlled by non-leftists. If

to pursue and attain the goals of the movement (see pa-

leftism ever becomes dominant in society, so that the tech-

ragraph 83). But no matter how far the movement has

nological system becomes a tool in the hands of leftists,

gone in attaining its goals the leftist is never satisfied, be-

they will enthusiastically use it and promote its growth. In

cause his activism is a surrogate activity (see paragraph

doing this they will be repeating a pattern that leftism has

41). That is, the leftist’s real motive is not to attain the os-

shown again and again in the past. When the Bolsheviks in

tensible goals of leftism; in reality he is motivated by the

Russia were outsiders, they vigorously opposed censorship

sense of power he gets from struggling for and then rea-

and the secret police, they advocated self-determination

ching a social goal. [35] Consequently the leftist is never

for ethnic minorities, and so forth; but as soon as they

satisfied with the goals he has already attained; his need

came into power themselves, they imposed a tighter cen-

for the power process leads him always to pursue some

sorship and created a more ruthless secret police than any

new goal. The leftist wants equal opportunities for mino-

that had existed under the tsars, and they oppressed eth-

rities. When that is attained he insists on statistical equa-

nic minorities at least as much as the tsars had done. In

lity of achievement by minorities. And as long as anyone

the United States, a couple of decades ago when leftists

harbors in some corner of his mind a negative attitude

were a minority in our universities, leftist professors were

toward some minority, the leftist has to re-educated him.

vigorous proponents of academic freedom, but today, in

And ethnic minorities are not enough; no one can be allo-

those of our universities where leftists have become do-

wed to have a negative attitude toward homosexuals, di-

minant, they have shown themselves ready to take away

sabled people, fat people, old people, ugly people, and on

from everyone else’s academic freedom. (This is “politi-

and on and on. It’s not enough that the public should be

cal correctness.”) The same will happen with leftists and

informed about the hazards of smoking; a warning has to

technology: They will use it to oppress everyone else if

be stamped on every package of cigarettes. Then cigarette

they ever get it under their own control.

advertising has to be restricted if not banned. The activists

217. In earlier revolutions, leftists of the most power-

will never be satisfied until tobacco is outlawed, and after

hungry type, repeatedly, have first cooperated with non-

that it will be alcohol, then junk food, etc. Activists have

leftist revolutionaries, as well as with leftists of a more li-

fought gross child abuse, which is reasonable. But now

bertarian inclination, and later have double-crossed them

they want to stop all spanking. When they have done that

to seize power for themselves. Robespierre did this in the

they will want to ban something else they consider unw-

French Revolution, the Bolsheviks did it in the Russian Re-

holesome, then another thing and then another. They will

volution, the communists did it in Spain in 1938 and Cas-

never be satisfied until they have complete control over

tro and his followers did it in Cuba. Given the past history

all child rearing practices. And then they will move on to

of leftism, it would be utterly foolish for non-leftist revo-

another cause.

lutionaries today to collaborate with leftists.

220. Suppose you asked leftists to make a list of ALL

218. Various thinkers have pointed out that leftism is a

the things that were wrong with society, and then suppose

kind of religion. Leftism is not a religion in the strict sense

you instituted EVERY social change that they demanded.

because leftist doctrine does not postulate the existence of

It is safe to say that within a couple of years the majority

any supernatural being. But, for the leftist, leftism plays a

of leftists would find something new to complain about,

some new social “evil” to correct; because, once again,

wrong things, but then they would try to find excuses for

the leftist is motivated less by distress at society’s ills than

the communists and begin talking about the faults of the

by the need to satisfy his drive for power by imposing his

West. They always opposed Western military resistance

solutions on society.

to communist aggression. Leftish types all over the world

221. Because of the restrictions placed on their thoughts

vigorously protested the U.S. military action in Vietnam,

and behavior by their high level of socialization, many lef-

but when the USSR invaded Afghanistan they did nothing.

tists of the over-socialized type cannot pursue power in

Not that they approved of the Soviet actions; but because

the ways that other people do. For them the drive for po-

of their leftist faith, they just couldn’t bear to put them-

wer has only one morally acceptable outlet, and that is in

selves in opposition to communism. Today, in those of our

the struggle to impose their morality on everyone.

universities where “political correctness” has become do-

222. Leftists, especially those of the oversocialized type,

minant, there are probably many leftish types who priva-

are True Believers in the sense of Eric Hoffer’s book, The

tely disapprove of the suppression of academic freedom,

True Believer. But not all True Believers are of the same

but they go along with it anyway.

psychological type as leftists. Presumably a true-believing

226. Thus the fact that many individual leftists are per-

nazi, for instance, is very different psychologically from a

sonally mild and fairly tolerant people by no means pre-

true-believing leftist. Because of their capacity for single-

vents leftism as a whole form having a totalitarian ten-

minded devotion to a cause, True Believers are a useful,

dency.

perhaps a necessary, ingredient of any revolutionary mo-

227. Our discussion of leftism has a serious weakness. It

vement. This presents a problem with which we must ad-

is still far from clear what we mean by the word “leftist.”

mit we don’t know how to deal. We aren’t sure how to

There doesn’t seem to be much we can do about this. To-

harness the energies of the True Believer to a revolution

day leftism is fragmented into a whole spectrum of activist

against technology. At present all we can say is that no

movements. Yet not all activist movements are leftist, and

True Believer will make a safe recruit to the revolution

some activist movements (e.g., radical environmentalism)

unless his commitment is exclusively to the destruction of

seem to include both personalities of the leftist type and

technology. If he is committed also to another ideal, he

personalities of thoroughly un-leftist types who ought to

may want to use technology as a tool for pursuing that

know better than to collaborate with leftists. Varieties of

other ideal (see paragraphs 200, 201).

leftists fade out gradually into varieties of non-leftists and

223. Some readers may say, “This stuff about leftism is

we ourselves would often be hard-pressed to decide whe-

a lot of crap. I know John and Jane who are leftish types

ther a given individual is or is not a leftist. To the extent

and they don’t have all these totalitarian tendencies.” It’s

that it is defined at all, our conception of leftism is defined

quite true that many leftists, possibly even a numerical

by the discussion of it that we have given in this article,

majority, are decent people who sincerely believe in tole-

and we can only advise the reader to use his own judg-

rating others’ values (up to a point) and wouldn’t want

ment in deciding who is a leftist.

to use high-handed methods to reach their social goals.

228. But it will be helpful to list some criteria for diag-

Our remarks about leftism are not meant to apply to every

nosing leftism. These criteria cannot be applied in a cut

individual leftist but to describe the general character of

and dried manner. Some individuals may meet some of

leftism as a movement. And the general character of a

the criteria without being leftists, some leftists may not

movement is not necessarily determined by the numeri-

meet any of the criteria. Again, you just have to use your

cal proportions of the various kinds of people involved in

judgment.

the movement.

229. The leftist is oriented toward large-scale collecti-

224. The people who rise to positions of power in leftist

vism. He emphasizes the duty of the individual to serve

movements tend to be leftists of the most power-hungry

society and the duty of society to take care of the indi-

type, because power-hungry people are those who strive

vidual. He has a negative attitude toward individualism.

hardest to get into positions of power. Once the power-

He often takes a moralistic tone. He tends to be for gun

hungry types have captured control of the movement,

control, for sex education and other psychologically “en-

there are many leftists of a gentler breed who inwardly

lightened” educational methods, for social planning, for

disapprove of many of the actions of the leaders, but can-

affirmative action, for multiculturalism. He tends to iden-

not bring themselves to oppose them. They NEED their

tify with victims. He tends to be against competition and

faith in the movement, and because they cannot give up

against violence, but he ofte finds excuses for those lef-

this faith they go along with the leaders. True, SOME lef-

tists who do commit violence. He is fond of using the

tists do have the guts to oppose the totalitarian tendencies

common catch-phrases of the left, like “racism,” “sexism,”

that emerge, but they generally lose, because the power-

“homophobia,” “capitalism,” “imperialism,” “neocolonia-

hungry types are better organized, are more ruthless and

lism,” “genocide,” “social change,” “social justice,” “so-

Machiavellian and have taken care to build themselves a

cial responsibility.” Maybe the best diagnostic trait of the

strong power base.

leftist is his tendency to sympathize with the following

225. These phenomena appeared clearly in Russia and

movements: feminism, gay rights, ethnic rights, disability

other countries that were taken over by leftists. Similarly,

rights, animal rights, political correctness. Anyone who

before the breakdown of communism in the, USSR, lef-

strongly sympathizes with ALL of these movements is al-

tish types in the West would, seldom criticize that coun-

most certainly a leftist. [36]

try. If prodded they would admit that the USSR did many

230. The more dangerous leftists, that is, those who

are most power-hungry, are often characterized by arro-

have existed prior to modern leftism. This is a significant

gance or by a dogmatic approach to ideology. However,

question to which historians ought to give their attention.

the most dangerous leftists of all may be certain oversocia-

lized types who avoid irritating displays of aggressiveness

and refrain from advertising their leftism, but work quietly

and unobtrusively to promote collectivist values, “enligh-

NOTES

tened” psychological techniques for socializing children,

dependence of the individual on the system, and so forth.

1. (Paragraph 19) We are asserting that ALL, or even

These crypto-leftists (as we may call them) approximate

most, bullies and ruthless competitors suffer from feelings

certain bourgeois types as far as practical action is concer-

of inferiority.

ned, but differ from them in psychology, ideology and mo-

2. (Paragraph 25) During the Victorian period many

tivation. The ordinary bourgeois tries to bring people un-

oversocialized people suffered from serious psychological

der control of the system in order to protect his way of life,

problems as a result of repressing or trying to repress their

or he does so simply because his attitudes are conventio-

sexual feelings. Freud apparently based his theories on

nal. The crypto-leftist tries to bring people under control

people of this type. Today the focus of socialization has

of the system because he is a True Believer in a collec-

shifted from sex to aggression.

tivistic ideology. The crypto-leftist is differentiated from

3. (Paragraph 27) Not necessarily including specialists

the average leftist of the oversocialized type by the fact

in engineering or the “hard” sciences.

that his rebellious impulse is weaker and he is more se-

4. (Paragraph 28) There are many individuals of the

curely socialized. He is differentiated from the ordinary

middle and upper classes who resist some of these values,

well-socialized bourgeois by the fact that there is some

but usually their resistance is more or less covert. Such re-

deep lack within him that makes it necessary for him to

sistance appears in the mass media only to a very limited

devote himself to a cause and immerse himself in a collec-

extent. The main thrust of propaganda in our society is

tivity. And maybe his (well-sublimated) drive for power is

in favor of the stated values. The main reason why these

stronger than that of the average bourgeois.

values have become, so to speak, the official values of our

society is that they are useful to the industrial system. Vio-

lence is discouraged because it disrupts the functioning of

the system. Racism is discouraged because ethnic conflicts

FINAL NOTE

also disrupt the system, and discrimination wastes the ta-

lents of minority-group members who could be useful to

231. Throughout this article we’ve made imprecise sta-

the system. Poverty must be “cured” because the under-

tements and statements that ought to have had all sorts

class causes problems for the system and contact with the

of qualifications and reservations attached to them; and

underclass lowers the morale of the other classes. Women

some of our statements may be flatly false. Lack of suf-

are encouraged to have careers because their talents are

ficient information and the need for brevity made it im-

useful to the system and, more importantly, because by

possible for us to formulate our assertions more precisely

having regular jobs women become better integrated into

or add all the necessary qualifications. And of course in

the system and tied directly to it rather than to their fami-

a discussion of this kind one must rely heavily on intui-

lies. This helps to weaken family solidarity. (The leaders

tive judgment, and that can sometimes be wrong. So we

of the system say they want to strengthen the family, but

don’t claim that this article expresses more than a crude

they really mean is that they want the family to serve as

approximation to the truth.

an effective tool for socializing children in accord with the

232. All the same, we are reasonably confident that the

needs of the system. We argue in paragraphs 51, 52 that

general outlines of the picture we have painted here are

the system cannot afford to let the family or other small-

roughly correct. Just one possible weak point needs to be

scale social groups be strong or autonomous.)

mentioned. We have portrayed leftism in its modern form

5. (Paragraph 42) It may be argued that the majority

as a phenomenon peculiar to our time and as a symptom

of people don’t want to make their own decisions but

of the disruption of the power process. But we might pos-

want leaders to do their thinking for them. There is an

sibly be wrong about this. Oversocialized types who try to

element of truth in this. People like to make their own de-

satisfy their drive for power by imposing their morality on

cisions in small matters, but making decisions on difficult,

everyone have certainly been around for a long time. But

fundamental questions requires facing up to psychologi-

we THINK that the decisive role played by feelings of infe-

cal conflict, and most people hate psychological conflict.

riority, low self-esteem, powerlessness, identification with

Hence they tend to lean on others in making difficult de-

victims by people who are not themselves victims, is a pe-

cisions. But it does not follow that they like to have deci-

culiarity of modern leftism. Identification with victims by

sions imposed upon them without having any opportunity

people not themselves victims can be seen to some extent

to influence those decisions. The majority of people are

in 19th century leftism and early Christianity, but as far as

natural followers, not leaders, but they like to have di-

we can make out, symptoms of low self-esteem, etc., were

rect personal access to their leaders, they want to be able

not nearly so evident in these movements, or in any other

to influence the leaders and participate to some extent in

movements, as they are in modern leftism. But we are not

making even the difficult decisions. At least to that degree

in a position to assert confidently that no such movements

they need autonomy.

6. (Paragraph 44) Some of the symptoms listed are si-

“mental health” professionals and the like are doing their

milar to those shown by caged animals. To explain how

best to push the social drives into group 1 by trying to see

these symptoms arise from deprivation with respect to the

to it that everyone has a satisfactory social life.

power process: common-sense understanding of human

11. (Paragraphs 63, 82) Is the drive for endless mate-

nature tells one that lack of goals whose attainment re-

rial acquisition really an artificial creation of the adverti-

quires effort leads to boredom and that boredom, long

sing and marketing industry? Certainly there is no innate

continued, often leads eventually to depression. Failure

human drive for material acquisition. There have been

to attain goals leads to frustration and lowering of self-

many cultures in which people have desired little material

esteem. Frustration leads to anger, anger to aggression,

wealth beyond what was necessary to satisfy their basic

often in the form of spouse or child abuse. It has been

physical needs (Australian aborigines, traditional Mexi-

shown that long-continued frustration commonly leads to

can peasant culture, some African cultures). On the other

depression and that depression tends to cause guilt, sleep

hand there have also been many pre-industrial cultures in

disorders, eating disorders and bad feelings about oneself.

which material acquisition has played an important role.

Those who are tending toward depression seek pleasure

So we can’t claim that today’s acquisition-oriented culture

as an antidote; hence insatiable hedonism and excessive

is exclusively a creation of the advertising and marketing

sex, with perversions as a means of getting new kicks. Bo-

industry. But it is clear that the advertising and marke-

redom too tends to cause excessive pleasure-seeking since,

ting industry has had an important part in creating that

lacking other goals, people often use pleasure as a goal.

culture. The big corporations that spend millions on ad-

The foregoing is a simplification. Reality is more com-

vertising wouldn’t be spending that kind of money wi-

plex, and of course, deprivation with respect to the power

thout solid proof that they were getting it back in in-

process is not the ONLY cause of the symptoms descri-

creased sales. One member of FC met a sales manager

bed. By the way, when we mention depression we do not

a couple of years ago who was frank enough to tell him,

necessarily mean depression that is severe enough to be

“Our job is to make people buy things they don’t want

treated by a psychiatrist. Often only mild forms of depres-

and don’t need.” He then described how an untrained no-

sion are involved. And when we speak of goals we do not

vice could present people with the facts about a product,

necessarily mean long-term, thought-out goals. For many

and make no sales at all, while a trained and experien-

or most people through much of human history, the goals

ced professional salesman would make lots of sales to the

of a hand-to-mouth existence (merely providing oneself

same people. This shows that people are manipulated into

and one’s family with food from day to day) have been

buying things they don’t really want.

quite sufficient.

12. (Paragraph 64) The problem of purposelessness

7. (Paragraph 52) A partial exception may be made for

seems to have become less serious during the last 15 years

a few passive, inwardlooking groups, such as the Amish,

or so, because people now feel less secure physically and

which have little effect on the wider society. Apart from

economically than they did earlier, and the need for se-

these, some genuine small-scale communities do exist in

curity provides them with a goal. But purposelessness has

America today. For instance, youth gangs and “cults.” Eve-

been replaced by frustration over the difficulty of attai-

ryone regards them as dangerous, and so they are, be-

ning security. We emphasize the problem of purposeless-

cause the members of these groups are loyal primarily

ness because the liberals and leftists would wish to solve

to one another rather than to the system, hence the sys-

our social problems by having society guarantee everyo-

tem cannot control them. Or take the gypsies. The gypsies

ne’s security; but if that could be done it would only bring

commonly get away with theft and fraud because their

back the problem of purposelessness. The real issue is not

loyalties are such that they can always get other gypsies

whether society provides well or poorly for people’s se-

to give testimony that “proves” their innocence. Obviously

curity; the trouble is that people are dependent on the

the system would be in serious trouble if too many people

system for their security rather than having it in their own

belonged to such groups. Some of the early-20th century

hands. This, by the way, is part of the reason why some

Chinese thinkers who were concerned with modernizing

people get worked up about the right to bear arms; pos-

China recognized the necessity breaking down small-scale

session of a gun puts that aspect of their security in their

social groups such as the family: “(According to Sun Yat-

own hands.

sen) the Chinese people needed a new surge of patrio-

13. (Paragraph 66) Conservatives’ efforts to decrease

tism, which would lead to a transfer of loyalty from the

the amount of government regulation are of little benefit

family to the state

(According to Li Huang) traditional

to the average man. For one thing, only a fraction of the

attachments, particularly to the family had to be abando-

regulations can be eliminated because most regulations

ned if nationalism were to develop in China.” (Chester C.

are necessary. For another thing, most of the deregulation

Tan, “Chinese Political Thought in the Twentieth Century,”

affects business rather than the average individual, so that

page 125, page 297.)

its main effect is to take power from the government and

8. (Paragraph 56) Yes, we know that 19th century Ame-

give it to private corporations. What this means for the

rica had its problems, and serious ones, but for the sake of

average man is that government interference in his life

brevity we have to express ourselves in simplified terms.

is replaced by interference from big corporations, which

9. (Paragraph 61) We leave aside the “underclass.” We

may be permitted, for example, to dump more chemicals

are speaking of the mainstream.

that get into his water supply and give him cancer. The

10. (Paragraph 62) Some social scientists, educators,

conservatives are just taking the average man for a sucker,

exploiting his resentment of Big Government to promote

ced lands, men live very similar lives in spite of geogra-

the power of Big Business.

phical, religious, and political differences. The daily lives

14. (Paragraph 73) When someone approves of the pur-

of a Christian bank clerk in Chicago, a Buddhist bank clerk

pose for which propaganda is being used in a given case,

in Tokyo, and a Communist bank clerk in Moscow are far

he generally calls it “education” or applies to it some simi-

more alike than the life of any one of them is like that

lar euphemism. But propaganda is propaganda regardless

of any single man who lived a thousand years ago. These

of the purpose for which it is used.

similarities are the result of a common technology

” L.

15. (Paragraph 83) We are not expressing approval or

Sprague de Camp, “The Ancient Engineers,” Ballantine

disapproval of the Panama invasion. We only use it to illus-

edition, page 17. The lives of the three bank clerks are

trate a point.

not IDENTICAL. Ideology does have SOME effect. But all

16. (Paragraph 95) When the American colonies were

technological societies, in order to survive, must evolve

under British rule there were fewer and less effective le-

along APPROXIMATELY the same trajectory.

gal guarantees of freedom than there were after the Ame-

19. (Paragraph 123) Just think an irresponsible genetic

rican Constitution went into effect, yet there was more

engineer might create a lot of terrorists.

personal freedom in pre-industrial America, both before

20. (Paragraph 124) For a further example of unde-

and after the War of Independence, than there was af-

sirable consequences of medical progress, suppose a re-

ter the Industrial Revolution took hold in this country. We

liable cure for cancer is discovered. Even if the treatment

quote from “Violence in America: Historical and Compara-

is too expensive to be available to any but the elite, it will

tive Perspectives,” edited by Hugh Davis Graham and Ted

greatly reduce their incentive to stop the escape of carci-

Robert Gurr, Chapter 12 by Roger Lane, pages 476-478:

nogens into the environment.

“The progressive heightening of standards of propriety,

21. (Paragraph 128) Since many people may find pa-

and with it the increasing reliance on official law enfor-

radoxical the notion that a large number of good things

cement (in l9th century America)... were common to the

can add up to a bad thing, we illustrate with an analogy.

whole society

[T]he change in social behavior is so long

Suppose Mr. A is playing chess with Mr. B. Mr. C, a Grand

term and so widespread as to suggest a connection with

Master, is looking over Mr. A’s shoulder. Mr. A of course

the most fundamental of contemporary social processes;

wants to win his game, so if Mr. C points out a good move

that of industrial urbanization itself

Massachusetts in

for him to make, he is doing Mr. A a favor. But suppose

1835 had a population of some 660,940, 81 percent ru-

now that Mr. C tells Mr. A how to make ALL of his moves.

ral, overwhelmingly preindustrial and native born. It’s ci-

In each particular instance he does Mr. A a favor by sho-

tizens were used to considerable personal freedom. Whe-

wing him his best move, but by making ALL of his moves

ther teamsters, farmers or artisans, they were all accusto-

for him he spoils his game, since there is not point in Mr.

med to setting their own schedules, and the nature of their

A’s playing the game at all if someone else makes all his

work made them physically independent of each other

moves. The situation of modern man is analogous to that

Individual problems, sins or even crimes, were not gene-

of Mr. A. The system makes an individual’s life easier for

rally cause for wider social concern

"But the impact of

him in innumerable ways, but in doing so it deprives him

the twin movements to the city and to the factory, both

of control over his own fate.

just gathering force in 1835, had a progressive effect on

22. (Paragraph 137) Here we are considering only the

personal behavior throughout the 19th century and into

conflict of values within the mainstream. For the sake of

the 20th. The factory demanded regularity of behavior, a

simplicity we leave out of the picture “outsider” values like

life governed by obedience to the rhythms of clock and

the idea that wild nature is more important than human

calendar, the demands of foreman and supervisor. In the

economic welfare.

city or town, the needs of living in closely packed neigh-

23. (Paragraph 137) Self-interest is not necessarily MA-

borhoods inhibited many actions previously unobjectio-

TERIAL self-interest. It can consist in fulfillment of some

nable. Both blue- and white-collar employees in larger es-

psychological need, for example, by promoting one’s own

tablishments were mutually dependent on their fellows;

ideology or religion.

as one man’s work fit into anther’s, so one man’s business

24. (Paragraph 139) A qualification: It is in the interest

was no longer his own. The results of the new organiza-

of the system to permit a certain prescribed degree of free-

tion of life and work were apparent by 1900, when some

dom in some areas. For example, economic freedom (with

76 percent of the 2,805,346 inhabitants of Massachusetts

suitable limitations and restraints) has proved effective in

were classified as urbanites. Much violent or irregular be-

promoting economic growth. But only planned, circum-

havior which had been tolerable in a casual, independent

scribed, limited freedom is in the interest of the system.

society was no longer acceptable in the more formalized,

The individual must always be kept on a leash, even if the

cooperative atmosphere of the later period

The move to

leash is sometimes long (see paragraphs 94, 97).

the cities had, in short, produced a more tractable, more

25. (Paragraph 143) We don’t mean to suggest that the

socialized, more ’civilized’ generation than its predeces-

efficiency or the potential for survival of a society has al-

sors.”

ways been inversely proportional to the amount of pres-

17. (Paragraph 117) Apologists for the system are fond

sure or discomfort to which the society subjects people.

of citing cases in which elections have been decided by

That certainly is not the case. There is good reason to be-

one or two votes, but such cases are rare.

lieve that many primitive societies subjected people to less

18. (Paragraph 119) “Today, in technologically advan-

pressure than European society did, but European society

proved far more efficient than any primitive society and

cheap and transparent support for narrow, short-sighted

always won out in conflicts with such societies because of

selfishness (some conservatives use it this way), or even is

the advantages conferred by technology.

cynically exploited to make easy money (by many evange-

26. (Paragraph 147) If you think that more effective law

lists), or has degenerated into crude irrationalism (funda-

enforcement is unequivocally good because it suppresses

mentalist protestant sects, “cults”), or is simply stagnant

crime, then remember that crime as defined by the sys-

(Catholicism, main-line Protestantism). The nearest thing

tem is not necessarily what YOU would call crime. Today,

to a strong, widespread, dynamic religion that the West

smoking marijuana is a “crime,” and, in some places in

has seen in recent times has been the quasi-religion of lef-

the U.S., so is possession of an unregistered handgun. To-

tism, but leftism today is fragmented and has no clear,

morrow, possession of ANY firearm, registered or not, may

unified, inspiring goal. Thus there is a religious vacuum

be made a crime, and the same thing may happen with

in our society that could perhaps be filled by a religion fo-

disapproved methods of child-rearing, such as spanking.

cused on nature in opposition to technology. But it would

In some countries, expression of dissident political opi-

be a mistake to try to concoct artificially a religion to fill

nions is a crime, and there is no certainty that this will

this role. Such an invented religion would probably be a

never happen in the U.S., since no constitution or politi-

failure. Take the “Gaia” religion for example. Do its adhe-

cal system lasts forever. If a society needs a large, power-

rents REALLY believe in it or are they just play-acting? If

ful law enforcement establishment, then there is some-

they are just play-acting their religion will be a flop in the

thing gravely wrong with that society; it must be subjec-

end. It is probably best not to try to introduce religion into

ting people to severe pressures if so many refuse to follow

the conflict of nature vs. technology unless you REALLY

the rules, or follow them only because forced. Many so-

believe in that religion yourself and find that it arouses a

cieties in the past have gotten by with little or no formal

deep, strong, genuine response in many other people.

law-enforcement.

31. (Paragraph 189) Assuming that such a final push

27. (Paragraph 151) To be sure, past societies have

occurs. Conceivably the industrial system might be elimi-

had means of influencing human behavior, but these have

nated in a somewhat gradual or piecemeal fashion (see

been primitive and of low effectiveness compared with the

paragraphs 4, 167 and Note 32).

technological means that are now being developed.

32. (Paragraph 193) It is even conceivable (remotely)

28. (Paragraph 152) However, some psychologists have

that the revolution might consist only of a massive change

publicly expressed opinions indicating their contempt for

of attitudes toward technology resulting in a relatively

human freedom. And the mathematician Claude Shannon

gradual and painless disintegration of the industrial sys-

was quoted in Omni (August 1987) as saying, “I visualize

tem. But if this happens we’ll be very lucky. It’s far more

a time when we will be to robots what dogs are to humans,

probably that the transition to a nontechnological society

and I’m rooting for the machines.”

will be very difficult and full of conflicts and disasters.

29. (Paragraph 154) This is no science fiction! After wri-

33. (Paragraph 195) The economic and technological

ting paragraph 154 we came across an article in Scien-

structure of a society are far more important than its po-

tific American according to which scientists are actively

litical structure in determining the way the average man

developing techniques for identffying possible future cri-

lives (see paragraphs 95, 119 and Notes 16, 18).

minals and for treating them by a combination of biolo-

34. (Paragraph 215) This statement refers to our par-

gical and psychological means. Some scientists advocate

ticular brand of anarchism. A wide variety of social at-

compulsory application of the treatment, which may be

titudes have been called “anarchist,” and it may be that

available in the near future. (See “Seeking the Criminal

many who consider themselves anarchists would not ac-

Element,” by W. Wayt Gibbs, Scientific American, March

cept our statement of paragraph 215. It should be noted,

1995.) Maybe you think this is okay because the treatment

by the way, that there is a nonviolent anarchist movement

would be applied to those who might become violent cri-

whose members probably would not accept FC as anar-

minals. But of course it won’t stop there. Next, a treatment

chist and certainly would not approve of FC’s violent me-

will be applied to those who might become drunk drivers

thods.

(they endanger human life too), then perhaps to peel who

35. (Paragraph 219) Many leftists are motivated also by

spank their children, then to environmentalists who sabo-

hostility, but the hostility probably results in part from a

tage logging equipment, eventually to anyone whose be-

frustrated need for power.

havior is inconvenient for the system.

36. (Paragraph 229) It is important to understand that

30. (Paragraph 184) A further advantage of nature as

we mean someone who sympathizes with these move-

a counter-ideal to technology is that, in many people, na-

ments as they exist today in our society. One who believes

ture inspires the kind of reverence that is associated with

that women, homosexuals, etc., should have equal rights

religion, so that nature could perhaps be idealized on a re-

is not necessary a leftist. The feminist, gay rights, etc., mo-

ligious basis. It is true that in many societies religion has

vements that exist in our society have the particular ideo-

served as a support and justification for the established

logical tone that characterizes leftism, and if one believes,

order, but it is also true that religion has often provided

for example, that women should have equal rights it does

a basis for rebellion. Thus it may be useful to introduce

not necessarily follow that one must sympathize with the

a religious element into the rebellion against technology,

feminist movement as it exists today.

the more so because Western society today has no strong

religious foundation. Religion, nowadays either is used as

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